Overview
This in-depth historical analysis details the complex causes and diplomatic developments leading up to the outbreak of World War II, focusing on the German invasion of Poland, the Danzig/Polish Corridor issue, British and French diplomatic actions, and failed peace efforts. It challenges simplified narratives, emphasizes the multidimensional buildup to war, and highlights the interplay of national policy, diplomacy, and misjudgments by several actors.
The Historical Context of Poland and Its Borders
- Poland's previous dominance in Eastern Europe ended in the late 18th century with partitions by Prussia, Austria, and Russia, erasing it from the map for 123 years.
- After World War I, the Allies debated Poland’s reconstitution, leading to contentious border decisions and the creation of the Polish Corridor and Free City of Danzig, both with large German populations.
- Polish leaders, notably Pilsudski and Dmowski, held differing views on territorial claims, contributing to internal and external disputes.
Allied Policies and Tensions
- Britain was hesitant to support an expansive Poland and predicted future instability due to border decisions.
- France, seeking a counterweight to Germany, advocated for a strong Poland and aligned with other Eastern European countries.
- The U.S. took an intermediary stance, wary of Polish demands but sympathetic due to the sizeable Polish immigrant population and anti-German sentiment.
- The Allies’ inability or reluctance to enforce a stable balance in the region sowed long-term resentment and division.
Rising Hostilities and Boycotts
- Anti-German sentiment intensified globally after Hitler’s rise, resulting in boycotts and diplomatic crises that brought Poland to the brink of invading Germany in 1933.
- Polish and Czechoslovakian governments considered aggressive action against Germany, but lack of Western support kept these from materializing.
- German-Polish relations remained fraught, with both sides preparing militarily.
The Danzig Corridor Crisis and Failed Diplomacy
- Danzig was over 90% German; Germany demanded its return and a corridor for connection with East Prussia.
- Hitler repeatedly offered peaceful settlement options, including guarantees for Poland’s borders and economic partnerships, but Poland refused all negotiations involving territorial compromise.
- Britain guaranteed Polish independence, which the Polish government interpreted as support in refusing any German demands.
Diplomatic Moves and Missed Opportunities
- Britain and France made security guarantees to Poland, Romania, Greece, and Turkey, with no substantial plan or ability to enforce these commitments.
- The Soviet Union, courted ineffectively by Britain and France, ultimately signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Germany, partitioning Poland in case of war.
- Hitler delayed invasion multiple times, seeking negotiation until the last moment, offering moderate terms for peaceful settlement, and being surprised and frustrated by Poland’s refusal to even discuss proposals.
Outbreak of War and Immediate Aftermath
- Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939; atrocities occurred on both sides, and Poland expected immediate Allied military assistance that did not materialize.
- Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, but engaged only in a “phony war” on the western front at first.
- The Polish government fled; Warsaw fell after intense fighting and bombardment; a German-administered rump state was created in occupied Poland.
- Early German attempts to negotiate a ceasefire with the West were ignored.
Analysis and Conclusions
- The narrative disputes the idea of a single aggressor, emphasizing that extensive diplomatic failures, miscommunications, and rigid policies by Britain, France, and Poland contributed to the escalation.
- British guarantees to Poland, intended as deterrence, instead hardened Polish resistance to compromise and made war more likely.
- German moderation over Danzig was overlooked, and the opportunity for a peaceful settlement was missed.
- The outbreak of WWII resulted largely from the inability of the main powers to negotiate or adapt to the changing realities in Eastern Europe.
Decisions
- British guarantee of Polish independence hardened Poland’s stance and was interpreted as a trigger for Allied intervention.
- Polish refusal to negotiate on Danzig or the corridor closed the door to peaceful compromise.
- Germany’s decision to sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact enabled the invasion of Poland without fear of Soviet intervention.
- Britain and France’s declaration of war on Germany made the conflict global, despite lack of immediate action on the Western Front.
Action Items
- TBD – All major actors (Britain, France, Poland, Germany): Pursue diplomatic avenues for settlement up to the outbreak of war (not completed).
- TBD – British and French governments: Develop actual military support plans for guaranteed states (not fulfilled).
Key Dates / Deadlines
- September 1, 1939: German invasion of Poland begins.
- September 3, 1939: Britain and France declare war on Germany.
Questions / Follow-Ups
- Could British and French diplomacy have averted war by negotiating a settlement over Danzig and the corridor?
- Why did Poland refuse to negotiate despite strong diplomatic pressure?
- What might have resulted from more robust Allied-Soviet cooperation before the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact?