[Music] hi everyone and welcome back to my channel in today's video we are going to take a look at the chemistry of life this is the chemistry chapter that is covered early on in anatomy and physiology this chapter covers the concepts necessary in order to understand the chemistry concepts that go along with certain chapters of anatomy and physiology 1 and 2. in the description box below i will put time stamps for the different concepts that are covered throughout this lecture that way if you only want to brush up on a specific concept you can go straight to the time stamp however you are more than welcome to watch this video as a whole if you need help with the entire chapter on chemistry the topics that this lecture will cover include chemical elements structure of atoms molecules and compounds chemical bonds nonpolar versus polar covalent bonds we're going to talk about water and the properties of water chemical reactions different types of chemical reactions and finally we'll talk about inorganic versus organic compounds discussing in detail several organic compounds that we talk about throughout anatomy and physiology as you can see this chapter is pretty extensive and we're going to cover a lot of topics again this is why i'm going to put the time stamps down in the description so that you can skip things if needed all forms of matter are made up of chemical elements you should know the chemical elements of the body by their symbols the chart in front of you now shows the chemical elements along with their symbols for example oxygen has the symbol o so if you were to see o on its own you should be able to recognize that it is oxygen so make sure that you know all the chemical elements by their symbols what this chart also shows you is the percent of total body mass for each one of these elements 96 of the body's mass is made from oxygen carbon hydrogen and nitrogen these four are the major chemical elements found in the body the lesser chemical elements make up 3.6 percent of the body's mass and this includes calcium phosphorus potassium sulfur sodium chlorine magnesium and iron the last 0.4 percent that is found in the body are trace elements they are referred to as trace elements because there are very tiny amounts and that point four percent is actually made up of 14 different elements such as things like iodine and zinc and so because of that there is a very very little amount of each one of these therefore they get the name trace elements each element is made up of atoms atoms are the smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of each element there are dozens of different subatomic particles that make up individual atoms however there are only three types of subatomic particles that are important for understanding chemical reactions in the human body these include protons electrons and neutrons the central part of the atom is referred to as the nucleus in the nucleus is where we will find protons which are positively charged and neutrons with which are neutral or have no charge while electrons which are negatively charged move about the large space that surrounds the nucleus the electrons themselves do not follow a fixed path or orbit but reside in what is referred to as an electron cloud even though their exact positions cannot be predicted there are certain rules about where the electrons are and how many can hang out in each area these regions are specifically called electron shells each electron shell is capable of holding a specific number of electrons the shell that is nearest the nucleus is referred to as the first electron shell and never holds more than two electrons the second shell holds a maximum of eight and the third can hold a maximum of 18 electrons the number of electrons in an atom always equals the number of protons because electrons are negative and protons are positive and they always equal each other they balance out each other's charges and the atom is electric electrically neutral meaning that the total charge would be zero the number of protons that are found in the nucleus of an atom is referred to as the atomic number that number the number of protons makes that element what it is therefore for each element the number of protons cannot change if we talk about the mass number the mass of an atom the mass is the number of the protons and the neutrons together even though the number of protons cannot change because then the element is actually changing so the number of protons do not change the number of neutrons can change this would then change the mass if the number of protons stays the same and the number of neutrons changes then this is an isotope so atoms can have isotopes and isotopes of an element are going to have different number of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers an example of this is when we look at carbon carbon 12 carbon 13 carbon 14 these are all isotopes of one another so they all have the same number of protons but the number of neutrons will change so when you look at the mass number the mass number is this weird number and it is an average of the number of isotopes so how often do we find these isotopes in nature and depending on that percentage and how much each one each one's mass is then that map that atomic that mass number is going to be an average of all of these different masses together so atoms can have isotopes remember the protons are going to stay the same but the number of neutrons can vary within those isotopes we just talked about the fact that atoms of the same element have the same number of protons however if their number of neutrons changes that would be an isotope of that element now what if an atom either gives up or gains electrons if an atom either gives up or gains electrons it becomes an ion ions are charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons an anion is referred to as negative and a cation is when it is positive so an anion would have extra electrons to make it negative and a cation would lose electrons and that would make it positive this happens when atoms come together in some sort of bond and they either lose or gain those electrons we'll talk about those concepts later on electrolytes is an ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in a solution salts that ionize in water and form solutions are capable of conducting electricity this is important because when we talk about ionic bonds and compounds in the body these are going to break up because the body is made mainly of water and so we have to talk about them in their relationship to water again i will touch on this concept more in detail later so if you don't get it yet hopefully you will get it by the end of this discussion now that you hopefully understand things like elements and ions let's talk about the difference between molecules and compounds molecules are composed of two or more atoms that are united by a chemical bond examples of these would be nitrogen gas or glucose a compound is a molecule that contains at least two different elements an example of this would be carbon dioxide so therefore all compounds are molecules but not all molecules are compounds if a molecule has two of the same like nitrogen gas seen above this would not be a compound so this would be only a molecule and not a compound let's talk about chemical bonds and how some of these chemical bonds react within the body themselves chemical bonds are forces of attraction that hold atoms together the weakest type of chemical bond that's actually an attraction are called van der waals forces van der waals forces are weak brief attractions due to random disturbances in electron clouds of adjacent atoms these again are the weakest of all the bonds the next type of bond we can talk about are hydrogen bonds these are a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen that comes from another molecule let's go ahead and take a minute to look a little bit deeper at hydrogen bonds and what they are because these are a big misconception with students now hydrogen bonds again are not a strong bond they are actually a weak attraction we see hydrogen bonds between strands of dna holding them together and again they're not very strong which allows dna to be opened up and allows dna to replicate or even dna to be transcribed into mrna let's take a look at a molecule of water okay so in water water is h2o so there's one oxygen and two hydrogens now water is a polar molecule which we'll talk about a little bit later on and what that means for right now for you to understand is that because of this and the pull of electrons in this molecule oxygen actually has a negative charge a slightly negative charge while hydrogen has a slightly positive charge okay because it is a polar so this is what happens with this and the big misconception is that when students see this molecule of water they automatically say okay well there's an oxygen and there's hydrogens and because oxygen is bound to hydrogen then right here this bond is a hydrogen bond no this is not a hydrogen bond yes oxygen is bound to hydrogen but this bond here within the molecule itself is not considered a hydrogen bond so then what is a hydrogen bond it's important to note that the definition of a hydrogen bond shows that it's a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen that comes from another molecule okay so you see that part right there that part is a big defining part there another molecule when molecules of water come together because there is a slightly negative charge on oxygen and a slightly positive charge on the hydrogen there is a weak attraction between these two here so these are two separate water molecules and they are attracted here because of the changes in the charges here okay so here between this oxygen of one water molecule and this hydrogen of another water molecule this here is where we see a hydrogen bond so hydrogen bonds are between two different molecules so an electronegative atom and a hydrogen atom and again this is what we see in between strands of dna holding those two strands together the next type of bond that we'll talk about are ionic bonds ionic bonds are an attraction of an anion to a cation an example of this is sodium chloride in these cases an electron is donated by one and received by the other these bonds when talking about them in relation to the body are relatively weak attractions that can be easily dissociated with water and because the body is made mainly of water these ionic bonds don't exist because when they're in the body they dissociate so instead of having ionic bonds we actually will have anions and cations in the body and so in this case the sodium and the chloride would dissociate uh one getting an electron the other donating an electron so the chloride would have an extra electron making it negative and the sodium would have donated that electron making it positive these would also be considered electrolytes a concept i touched on before where we have salts that have dissociated in water and they're capable of conducting electricity and this is a concept that we'll talk a lot more about later on in anatomy and physiology when you talk about action potentials for things like neuron firing or muscle contractions the last type of bond that we'll talk about are covalent bonds covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons and within the body they are the strongest bonds covalent bonds are seen throughout the body holding things together we see them in the skin in the tissue in dna and in protein and unlike ionic bonds they do not dissociate in water if they did we would be a puddle of mush covalent bonds can be single double or triple covalent bonds depending on how many electrons are shared besides the difference in how many electrons are shared within covalent bonds covalent bonds can also differ with how the electrons are shared in a covalent bond and this leads us to the idea of polarity so covalent bonds can either be nonpolar or polar now whether a covalent bond is polar or nonpolar is going to depend on the electronegativity of the atoms within the bond and electronegativity is a way of saying how much do those elements or atoms in the bond want the electrons themselves if they have a strong electronegativity they may pull those electrons closer to them as we saw in our example of water before if the electronegativity is more equal between the elements then there's going to be more of an equal sharing let me show you what i mean in a nonpolar covalent bond there is going to be an equal sharing of electrons this is because the atoms that are involved within the bond have similar electronegativities an example of this would be ch4 or methane where we have one carbon attached to four hydrogens in this case there is an equal sharing of electrons between the carbon and all four hydrogen this equal sharing of electrons means that there is no charge so in nonpolar covalent bonds there is no charge seen on that molecule another way to look at this is to look at an equal tug of war game in which both sides have equal forces in this case this the rope that is there is going to have equal force on it and there's not going to be a pulling of the rope more to one side than the other this is the same thing that happens in a nonpolar covalent bond the electrons are shared equally between each part of the nonpolar covalent bond and because of this equal sharing there's no pull of the electrons closer to one element or the other and therefore there is no charge now what happens in a polar covalent bond in a polar covalent bond there is an unequal sharing of electrons this is because the atoms that are now involved have different electronegativities and because their electronegativities differ there will be certain elements that will want to pull those electrons closer to them and they'll be further away from the other ones we saw this before in our example of water in our example of water we see that oxygen has a greater electronegativity for the electrons than the hydrogens that are attached to it in this case the electrons sit a little bit closer to the oxygen the shared electrons sit a little bit closer to the oxygen making the oxygen have a slight negative charge while the hydrogens have a slight positive charge because again the electrons are being held a little bit closer to oxygen so rather than equally sharing the electrons in space the electrons are actually sitting closer to the oxygen in this case because oxygen's electronegativity is greater this creates a polar covalent bond and in polar covalent bond we'll see charge differences on there just like we see in this water molecule i've already brought up water a couple of times because the body is mainly made of water water is a medium for chemical reactions it is a universal solvent and most mixtures in our bodies are going to consist of chemicals that are dissolved or suspended in water water as we just described is a polar substance let's talk about the properties of water first is solvency water has the ability to dissolve other chemicals as a matter of fact i just mentioned that water is the universal solvent this is because water can dissolve most things the next property is water's cohesion which is the tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other we notice on water when it is not disturbed that there is a surface tension created by the cohesion between the water molecules as they um cling to one another also remember that water is polar and so those hydrogen bonds between the hydrogens and the oxygen allow them to temporarily bond to one water molecule to another water molecule and this also adds to its ability to have this cohesive property so if water is left sitting and is not disturbed it is going to have this surface tension that allows things like bugs to stand on it another property of water is adhesion which is the tendency of one substance to cling to another substance in the case of water this means that water has the ability to cling to other things such as leaves when you see the dew in the morning another property of water is its chemical reactivity this is water's ability to be able to participate in chemical reactions and again this is really important because the chemical reactions we'll be talking about in anatomy and physiology are happening in the body and again the body is made mainly of water and finally we can talk about thermal stability this property of water helps in stabilizing the internal temperature of the body this property is a result of water's high heat capacity this is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree celsius what this basically means is that there is a lot of heat needed in order to raise the temperature of water and therefore it has this thermal stability think about when you go to boil water it takes a really long time for water to boil at very high heat on the stove top this is a good thing when we talk about our body because we don't want our temperature changing very rapidly if it's hot or if it's cold outside let's talk about chemical reactions a chemical reaction is a process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken a chemical equation used to show a chemical reaction typically shows the reactants on the left and the products on the right the reactants must collide in order for the reaction to occur the term metabolism describes all the reactions in the body and virtually all metabolic reactions depend on the solvency of water a lot of times when we think about metabolism we think about how high is our metabolism so that we can lose weight right is our body using things fast enough because if we can burn more calories than we take in then our metabolism must be really high but metabolism which is all the reactions that are occurring in the body actually is composed of both catabolism and animalism catabolism includes the reactions that are needed to break large molecules into smaller ones while anabolism is going to include the reactions that build complex molecules from simpler ones so as you can see metabolism includes all the chemical reactions that are occurring in the body these include both building up of molecules and breaking down of molecules now there are certain specific types of chemical reactions that we're going to talk about next that can fall into these categories now the best way to remember the difference between anabolism and catabolism for me is that i think of anna builds and when i think of anna builds it helps me to remember that anabolism is the building up and then i can remember with that that catabolism is the breaking down so let's get into the types of chemical reactions we're going to talk about four different types of chemical reactions one would be catabolism two would be anabolism and then we're going to talk about two others that occur throughout the body now again this is building the basis for anatomy and physiology because these are concepts that are going to come up again later on so the first type of reaction would be a catabolic reaction or taking large molecules and breaking them down into two or more smaller ones this type of chemical reaction is referred to as a decomposition reaction it is also referred to as hydrolysis now this type of reaction actually uses water to break down large molecules into smaller molecules and because of that addition of water that's why it's also referred to as hydrolysis so decomposition refers to the fact that we're going to decompose right we're going to take these larger molecules and make them into smaller molecules hydrolysis that name is referring to the fact that water is going to be used in order to break these molecules apart so hydro being water lysis being breaking so we're going to break them apart so if we look at what i've drawn here what you'll notice is that there is a dimer initially okay and this is just giving you an example of how this is going to work so we're going to take a large molecule that's connected by the addition of water and most decomposition reactions are also going to require energy in the form of heat light or electricity and then we're going to break that dimer into monomers now get used to this term monomer because you're going to hear it a lot we're going to talk about monomers a specific large molecules later on but monomers are going to be that smallest building block that's going to be really important throughout anatomy and physiology so we're going to take that dimer by the addition of water and energy we're going to break that dimer into monomers so now instead of having two we're going to have uh two together we're going to have two separate ones okay so we're gonna break that down another way to look at this type of reaction is to look at the fact that we had two together and then we're going to break that down into two separate ones so again we're taking a large molecule and we're breaking it down into smaller pieces this type of reaction is referred to as an exergonic reaction because they are going to release more energy than they absorb the next type of reaction that we'll talk about is an anabolic reaction this reaction is referred to as a synthesis reaction also known as dehydration synthesis this type of reaction is the opposite of a decomposition reaction in this type of reaction two or more small molecules are going to combine to form a larger one a synthesis reaction is the opposite of a decomposition reaction in this case we're going to have two pieces two monomers and we are going to build them up in this anabolic reaction and so in this case instead of adding water we're actually going to be removing water from these monomers in order to put them back together in a dimer formation this is also why it is referred to as dehydration synthesis because of the removal of water to put these pieces together anabolic reactions are usually endergonic because they absorb more energy than they release also another way to look at this reaction would be a plus b gives you a b so again an anabolic reaction building up taking smaller molecules and making them into bigger ones the next type of reaction we're going to talk about are exchange reactions many of the reactions in the body are actually exchange reactions this is where two molecules are going to exchange atoms or groups of atoms these reactions consist of both synthesis and decomposition reactions they are also referred to as double displacement reactions in my classes i like to refer to them as a double date gone wrong this type of reaction looks like this let's say you start with molecule that has a b and then the other molecule has cd what happens is they actually switch partners hence double date gone wrong what's happening is that the bonds between a and b and c and d are breaking that's a decomposition reaction and then new bonds are being formed that's going to be the synthesis portion now this happens because uh they their partners each have a higher affinity for the other one and so they actually swap partners here resulting in an exchange reaction or a double displacement reaction the final reaction that we're going to talk about are reversible reactions as you've seen in the other chemical reactions that we've talked about many of them proceed only in one direction and you can tell that from the way that the arrow points however reversible reactions can go in either direction under different circumstances and this is represented by a pair of arrows that show that the reaction can go in either direction most of the chemicals in your body exist in the form of compounds these compounds are divided into two basic classes they include inorganic and organic compounds inorganic compounds usually have no carbon and they are structurally simple they include water salts acids and bases they also include two carbon containing compounds carbon dioxide and bicarbonate ion inorganic compounds can have either ionic or covalent bonds water makes up about 55 to 60 percent of the total body mass of an adult while the other inorganic compounds add about one to two percent of the total body mass on the other hand organic compounds always contain carbon they usually also contain hydrogen and they always have covalent bonds most of these large molecules are made up of long chains of carbon atoms organic compounds make up the remaining 38 to 43 of the total body mass let's take a closer look at carbon and then we're going to discuss the four categories of carbon compounds carbon is an element that has four valence electrons and therefore is capable of making four covalent bonds carbon can readily bind with itself and therefore can form carbon chains these carbon chains are the backbones that are seen in many organic molecules carbon also forms covalent bonds with hydrogen oxygen nitrogen sulfur and other elements let's now go ahead and talk about the four categories of carbon compounds the first category we're going to talk about are carbohydrates carbohydrates include sugars glycogen starches and cellulose carbohydrates have about a two to one ratio of hydrogen to oxygen and are written as ch2o all in parentheses n where the n is going to represent the number of carbon atoms an example of a carbohydrate that we talk about a lot in anatomy and physiology is glucose which is written c6h12o6 glucose is the main blood sugar and is oxidized in order to make atp there are three major groups of carbohydrates that are based on their size these include monosaccharides disaccharides and polysaccharides monosaccharides include simple sugars such as glucose fructose and galactose which are all isomers of one another and then ribose and deoxyribose are monosaccharides that we find in dna and rna disaccharides are composed of two monosaccharides they include sucrose which is glucose plus fructose lactose which is glucose plus galactose and maltose which is glucose and glucose and finally polysaccharides are a long chains of glucose they include glycogen starch and cellulose animals can make glycogen while plants have starch and cellulose it's important to note that the largest molecules of carbohydrates are referred to as polysaccharides and they can be broken down into their smallest building blocks which are referred to as monosaccharides or monomers later on when we talk about breaking things down and building things up and we refer to carbohydrates understand that carbohydrates can be built up into polysaccharides like glycogen or they can be broken down into monosaccharides the monomer smallest building block mainly glucose carbohydrates are a quickly mobilized source of energy all digested carbohydrates are going to be converted into glucose which is then oxidized in order to make atp the second category of carbon compounds that we are going to talk about are lipids lipids are hydrophobic water theorying organic molecules they are composed of hydrogen oxygen and carbon there's a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen in these molecules and there are five primary types that are found in humans they are fatty acids triglycerides phospholipids icosanoids and steroids fatty acids are a chain of 4 to 24 carbon atoms they are classified as either saturated unsaturated polyunsaturated or essential fatty acids saturated fatty acids are referred to as so because its carbon atoms are saturated with hydrogen as you see in this figure every carbon is saturated with hydrogens while an unsaturated fatty acid contains carbon to carbon double bonds as you see here and therefore each carbon in the carbon chain is not fully saturated with hydrogens so this is the difference between a saturated fatty acid all saturated with hydrogens and an unsaturated fatty acid which can have one or more of these double carbon to carbon bonds and a polyunsaturated fatty acid just has many of these carbon to carbon double bonds as you see here and finally essential fatty acids are obtained from the diet the body cannot synthesize these examples of these would be omega-3 and omega-6. the next type of lipids are triglycerides these are the most plentiful lipids in the body they are made of one glycerol and three fatty acids triglycerides at room temperature are called oils when they are liquid these are often polyunsaturated fats from plants when they are solid they are referred to as fat these are saturated fats from animals again remember what the difference is between saturated versus unsaturated when we talk about a saturated fat all carbons are saturated with hydrogens and in an unsaturated fat some of those carbons are exposed without the hydrogens being there because of those carbon to carbon double bonds that are found the functions of triglycerides are for energy storage insulation and shock absorption which we would see with adipose tissue the next type of lipid are phospholipids phospholipids are similar to triglycerides except they have one fatty acid that is replaced by a phosphate group this is the structural foundation of the cell membrane they are amphiphilic this means that they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions the fatty acid tails of the phospholipid are hydrophobic and the phosphate head is hydrophilic this is why in the cell membrane there are two layers of phospholipids referred to as the phospholipid bilayer where the heads face the outside and inside of the cell because they are hydrophilic or water loving and the tails face each other as they are hydrophobic or water fury the next category of lipids that we'll talk about are steroids the structure of steroids is very different from the triglycerides that we've been talking about steroids have four rings of carbon atoms the cells of the body synthesize other steroids from cholesterol in the body the commonly encountered steroids are cholesterol estrogens testosterone cortisol bile salts and vitamin d and finally we have icosanoids these include prostaglandins and leukotrienes these have a diverse effect on modifying responses to hormones blood clotting inflammation immunity stomach acid secretion airway diameter lipid breakdown and smooth muscle contraction the next type of carbon compounds that we'll talk about are proteins proteins are a polymer of amino acid this means that the monomers of proteins are amino acids 20 amino acids are used to make proteins these are identical except for their r group amino acids have a central carbon and they have three different attachments an amino group which is nh2 a carboxyl group cooh and a radical group which is the r group amino acids are put together to make proteins any molecule that is composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds is referred to as a peptide these peptide bonds are used to join the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next amino acid they are formed by dehydration synthesis peptides are named for the number of amino acids dipeptides have two amino acids tripeptides have three and oligopeptides have fewer than 10 to 15. polypeptides have more than 15 and then finally proteins have more than 50 amino acids proteins have four levels of structural organization the primary structure of a protein is the protein's amino acid sequence that is unique to each protein this amino acid sequence is linked together by covalent peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain the secondary structure of proteins is the coiled or folded shape that is held together by hydrogen bonds hydrogen bonds between slightly negative carbon to oxygen double bonds and slightly positive nitrogen to hydrogen groups the most common secondary structures are the alpha helix which is a spring-like shape and the beta helix which is a pleated ribbon-like shape the tertiary structure of the protein continues with further bending and folding of the protein into globular and fibrous shapes there are globular proteins which are compact tertiary structure well suited for proteins that are embedded in the cell membrane and proteins that must move freely in bodily fluid and then there's fibrous proteins these are slender filaments that are better suited for roles as in muscle contraction and strengthening the skin some proteins also have a quaternary structure though not all and this is when there are two or more separate polypeptide chains that are associated with one another proteins vary tremendously in structure from one another different proteins have different architecture and different three-dimensional shapes a protein's unique shape helps it to perform its function if a protein is not folded correctly it is not going to be able to do its proper function so the confirmation of a protein is what we refer to as its unique three-dimensional shape that is very crucial to its function if a protein gets denatured and this is with extreme conformational change that destroys its function extreme heat or ph so if the protein is denatured in some way where it is no longer the right shape anymore due to some circumstance heat ph etc then the protein is no longer going to be able to perform its function proteins have a variety of functions one of those functions is structure an example of a structural protein is keratin this tough structural protein is going to give strength to hair nails and skin surface proteins are also involved in communication there are receptors that are in the cell membrane and these are proteins that can bind to molecules that are going to signal things within the cell proteins are also involved in membrane transport again there are channels in the cell membrane that are going to govern what passes through and these are proteins proteins can be involved in catalysis these specific proteins are referred to as enzymes proteins are also involved in recognition and protection examples of these would be proteins that are involved in immune recognition and antibodies proteins are also involved in movement these are specifically referred to as motor proteins these molecules have the ability to change shape repeatedly and finally proteins are involved in cell adhesion these proteins can bind cells together and they can keep tissues from falling apart and finally the last category of carbon compounds that we'll talk about are nucleotides there are three components of nucleotides they include a nitrogenous base which is a single or double carbon nitrogen ring a sugar which is a monosaccharide and one or more phosphate groups atp is actually the best known nucleotide this is the energy currency of the cell it includes adenine which is its nitrogenous base ribose which is a sugar and three phosphate groups nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides so nucleotides would be the monomer nucleic acids include both dna deoxyribonucleic acid and rna ribonucleic acid dna has a hundred million to one billion nucleotides long it constitutes the genes of the body and is passed down from parents to offspring it is the instructions for synthesizing all of the body's proteins and it transfers that hereditary information from cell to cell and like i just said from generation to generation with rna ribonucleic acid there are three different types messenger rna ribosomal rna and transfer rna it is about 70 to 10 000 nucleotides long it carries out genetic instruction for synthesizing proteins dna is a double stranded helix while rna is single stranded dna sugar is deoxyribose while rna sugar is ribose if you want to learn more about dna and rna i have other videos that i'll link in the description box that you can take a look at in order to learn about these more in depth thank you so much for watching my video i hope that it's helpful to you as you go along in your studies with anatomy and physiology i'm going to continue to make some videos that are going to help you if you have any comments or questions please make sure to drop them below thank you