AP Environmental Science Ultimate Guide

Chapter 1: The Living World (Ecosystem)

Ecosystems Overview

• Ecosystem: Community of living organisms interacting with non-living components via nutrient and energy cycles.

Biological Populations and Communities

• Organism: Individual living entity.
• Species: Similar organisms capable of interbreeding.
• Population: Group of the same species in an area.
• Community: Different species populations.

Ecological Niches

• Ecological Niche: Role and position a species has in its environment.
• Characterized by habitat, interactions, food web role, resources.

Interactions Among Species

• Symbiosis: Close, long-term interaction between species.
• Types:
  • Amensalism: One species harmed, other not affected.
  • Commensalism: One benefits, other not affected.
  • Competition: Intra- or interspecific struggle for resources.
  • Mutualism: Both benefit.
  • Parasitism: One benefits, other harmed.
  • Predation: Predator hunts prey.
  • Saprotrophism: Decomposition for nutrients.

Law of Tolerance

• Species distribution depends on tolerance to physical, chemical factors.

Predation and Resource Partitioning

• Predator-prey cycles and resource partitioning (morphological, spatial, temporal).

Terrestrial Biomes

• Biomes: Defined by plant life, climate; temperature, precipitation key determinants.

Deserts

• Defined by low rainfall; contains adaptations like succulents, cacti.

Forests

• Diverse; Layers: Closed canopy, open canopy.

Tropical Rainforest

• High biodiversity, rapid decomposition.

Temperate Deciduous Forests

• Distinct seasons, fertile soil.

Temperate Coniferous Forests

• Conical trees, adapted to cold.

Taiga

• Largest biome, cold-tolerant trees.

Grasslands

• Dominated by grasses, divided into savannas and temperate grasslands.

Tundra

• Extreme conditions, low biodiversity.

Arctic Tundra

• Cold, low precipitation, permafrost.

Alpine Tundra

• High elevation, short growing season.

Aquatic Biomes

• Include marine, lakes, rivers; nutrients from water.

Antarctic and Marine

• Coldest climate, productive seas.

Ocean Circulation and Zones

• Ocean currents, zones (littoral, neretic, photic).

Corals

• Coral reefs types: Fringing, barrier, atolls.

Lakes

• Formed by various geological processes, have zones (benthic, limnetic, etc.).

Lake Stratification and Seasonal Turnover

• Lake layers based on temperature, seasonal mixing.

Wetlands

• High productivity, ecological services; impacted by human activities.

Rivers and Streams

• Flow, nutrient content depends on terrain, vegetation.

Carbon Cycle

• Carbon exchanged through biosphere; human impacts include fossil fuels, deforestation.

Nitrogen Cycle

• Essential for amino acids, proteins; altered by human activities.

Phosphorus Cycle

• Important for nucleotides, ATP; affected by fertilizers.

Hydrologic Cycle

• Driven by solar energy, involves evaporation, precipitation.

Water Properties and Distribution

• Majority in oceans, unique properties like high specific heat, expands when frozen.

Aquifers

• Geological formations for water storage; threatened by overuse.

Primary Productivity

• Energy flow via photosynthesis; affected by sunlight, nutrients, temperature.

Trophic Levels and Energy Flow

• Energy pyramids, 10% rule, cellular respiration.

Chapter 2: The Living World (Biodiversity)

Introduction to Biodiversity

• Variability among species; genetic, species, ecosystem diversity.

Anthropogenic Activities Reducing Biodiversity

• Includes deforestation, pollution; strategies for remediation.

Population Bottleneck

• Environmental events reducing genetic diversity.

Species Richness

• Number of different species in a community.

Ecosystem Services

• Cultural, provisioning, regulating, supporting benefits.

Island Biogeography

• Species richness affected by isolation, fragmentation.

Ecological Tolerance

• Species' success depends on tolerance to environmental factors.

Natural Disruptions

• Flooding, volcanic eruptions, wildfires impact ecosystems.

Adaptations

• Organisms adjust to environments; can be short or long term.

Ecological Succession

• Gradual change in communities; includes primary, secondary succession.

Keystone Species

• Critical to ecosystem balance, e.g., sea stars, grizzly bears.

Indicator Species

• Reflect environmental conditions.

Chapter 3: Populations

Generalists and Specialists

• Generalists: Wide range; Specialists: Specific needs.

K-Selected & R-Selected Species

• K-selected: Few offspring, high care; R-selected: Many offspring, less care.

Survivorship Curve

• Types I, II, III describe different life stage mortality patterns.

Carrying Capacity

• Maximum population sustainable by environment.

Population Growth and Resource Availability

• Dispersal patterns, biotic potential factors.

Limiting Factors and Rule of 70

• Factors controlling growth; Rule of 70 for population doubling.

Age-Structure Diagrams

• Show population age distribution; pyramid, bell, urn shapes.

Total Fertility Rate

• Average number of children per woman; influenced by multiple factors.

Human Population Dynamics

• Historical growth surges, influences on death rates.

Chapter 4: Earth's Systems and Resources

Plate Tectonics

• Theory of lithospheric plates moving on Earth's surface.

Continental Drift and Seafloor Spreading

• Wegener's theory of moving continents, ocean floor expansion.

Soil Formation and Erosion

• Soil composition, erosion impacts from poor agriculture.

Rock Types

• Igneous, metamorphic, sedimentary.

Soil Composition and Properties

• Components like sand, clay, humus; factors affecting quality.

Earth's Atmosphere

• Structure, history of composition changes; layers like troposphere, stratosphere.

Weather and Climate

• Influenced by solar energy, atmospheric circulation.

Global Wind Patterns

• Land/sea breezes, pressure systems, Coriolis effect.

Watershed and Solar Radiation

• Watershed management; solar energy affects seasons, climate.

Chapter 5: Land and Water Use

The Tragedy of the Commons

• Overuse of shared resources leading to depletion.

Clear-Cutting

• Forestry impacts, edge effects, deforestation mitigation.

Agricultural and Green Revolutions

• Historical advancements in farming techniques.

Agricultural Practices

• Impacts of desertification, fertilizers, GMOs.

Irrigation Methods

• Techniques like drip, furrow, spray.

Pest-Control Methods

• Types of pesticides, integrated pest management.

Meat Production

• CAFOs, environmental impacts.

Overfishing

• Methods to manage, restore fish populations.

Mining

• Types of mining, environmental damage.

Urbanization

• Pros/cons, urban sprawl, smart growth.

Ecological Footprints

• Sustainable living, reducing human impact.

Chapter 6: Energy Resources and Consumption

Introduction to Energy

• Different forms, sources of energy.

Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

• Definitions, examples.

Fossil Fuels and Combustion

• Types, environmental effects.

Nuclear Power

• Fission, nuclear fuels like U-235, Pu-239.

Biomass and Solar Energy

• Energy from organic material, solar technology.

Hydroelectric and Geothermal Energy

• Water and earth heat as energy sources.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Wind Energy

• Clean technologies, wind power advantages.

Energy Conservation

• Methods for reducing consumption.

Chapter 7: Atmospheric Pollution

Introduction to Air Pollution

• Sources, types of pollutants.

Atmospheric CO2 and Particulates

• Industrial smog, carbon monoxide, lead effects.

Nitrogen Oxides and Ozone

• Impacts on health, environment.

Photochemical Smog and Thermal Inversion

• Formation, effects on air quality.

Indoor Air Pollutants

• Sources, health effects.

Reduction of Air Pollutants

• Technologies, strategies for mitigation.

Acid Rain

• Causes, effects on ecosystems.

Heat Islands and Noise Pollution

• Urban heat effects, noise reduction techniques.

Chapter 8: Aquatic and Terrestrial Pollution

Sources of Water Pollution

• Point, non-point, thermal pollution.

Human Impacts on Ecosystem

• Cultural eutrophication, biodegradable wastes.

Mining and Oil Spills

• Environmental impacts, disaster management.

Persistent Organic Pollutants

• Characteristics, effects on ecosystems.

Water Quality

• Testing parameters, treatment methods.

Endocrine Disruptors

• Chemicals affecting hormonal systems.

Wetlands and Mangroves

• Human impacts on these crucial ecosystems.

Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification

• Pollution concentration in food webs.

Solid Waste Disposal

• Types of waste, disposal methods.

Waste Solutions and Energy Recovery

• Techniques for hazardous waste management.

Chapter 9: Global Change

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion

• Effects, reduction strategies.

Greenhouse Effect

• Mechanism, impacts on climate.

Global Climate Change

• Causes, effects, international agreements.

Biodiversity and Invasive Species

• Effects of habitat loss, invasive species.

Endangered Species

• Conservation strategies, factors of endangerment.

Maintaining Biodiversity

• Conservation methods and their importance.