Overview
This lecture covers the origins, migrations, and cultural evolution of Native American societies before European contact, focusing on major civilizations in Central, South, and North America.
Human Migration and Origins
- Native Americans originated from the "Old World" (Europe, Asia, Africa).
- The "Out of Africa" theory is most widely accepted for human migration.
- Bering Strait Land Bridge theory: during the Ice Age, a land bridge allowed migration from Asia to the Americas.
- Archaeological evidence supports multiple migration events, including possible boat travel and different routes.
Early Civilizations of Central and South America
- Early groups (Olmecs, Toltecs) developed agriculture, enabling civilization.
- Agriculture allowed stable settlements, surplus food, trade networks, and societal stratification.
Inca
- Inca civilization spanned the Andes (Peru, Chile) and developed roads, stone architecture, irrigation, and domesticated llamas.
- Pantheistic religion; practiced human (especially child) sacrifice.
- Empire covered 2,500 miles and 12 million people until Spanish conquest in 1533.
Maya
- Developed advanced mathematics (first to use zero), astronomy, and pictogram writing.
- Shared culture rather than unified empire; frequent internal warfare.
- Practiced human sacrifice, with ritual methods evolving over time.
- Mayan civilization mysteriously declined before European contact.
Aztec (Mexica)
- Controlled much of central Mexico and built Tenochtitlan, a major city with advanced infrastructure.
- Agriculture, architecture, and irrigation were highly developed.
- Warrior culture; frequent human sacrifices, especially heart removal, were central to religion and power.
- Conquered by Spanish under Cortes, resulting in destruction of Tenochtitlan.
North American Native Groups and Cultures
- North American groups were diverse, lacked written language, and had varied religions focusing on animism and nature.
- Land was communally used, not privately owned, causing conflict with Europeans.
Southwest
- Included groups like Hopi, Navajo, Anasazi; built cliff dwellings and practiced desert agriculture via irrigation.
- Despite climate shifts and abandonment of cliff villages, descendants remain in the region.
Northwest
- Coastal groups (e.g., in Alaska, Washington) practiced hunter-gatherer lifestyles, built longhouses and large canoes, and created totem poles.
- Simple class structures and small-scale warfare.
Great Plains
- Nomadic hunter-gatherers (Sioux, Cheyenne, Apache), relied on bison and used portable teepees.
- Developed Plains sign language for intergroup communication.
- Debate exists over whether horses predated European introduction.
Mississippian
- Built large earthen mounds for temples and elite homes; society centered around Cahokia city.
- Practiced agriculture (corn, beans, squash) and engaged in trade networks.
- Society declined due to environmental factors such as deforestation and flooding.
Eastern Native Americans
Algonquian
- Spread across New England and Great Lakes, lived in wigwams, practiced hunting, gathering, and small farming (the "Three Sisters": corn, beans, squash).
- Used controlled burns to fertilize land and create grazing areas.
Iroquois
- A united confederation with matriarchal clan leadership; important groups included Seneca, Mohawk, Oneida.
- Frequent warfare and retribution cycles with neighboring tribes and Europeans.
- Practiced adoption of captured women and children.
Eastern Woodland & Others
- Groups like the Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws lived in small towns with matrilineal lines.
- Built open-wall homes adapted for heat; accepted runaway slaves, contributing to the Seminole tribe's resistance to removal.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Bering Strait Land Bridge — Ice Age land connection enabling human migration from Asia to North America.
- Animism — Belief that animals and natural objects possess spirits.
- Pantheism — Religious belief in multiple gods with specific domains.
- Three Sisters — Corn, beans, and squash grown together for mutual benefit.
- Tenochtitlan — Aztec capital city, site of modern-day Mexico City.
- Cahokia — Major Mississippian city known for large ceremonial mounds.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Read Iroquois creation story and laws assigned for this week.
- Review upcoming material on colonial encounters and Native American-European relations.
- Prepare notes on cultural differences and sources of conflict for discussion.