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> Process of Counseling
# UNIT 3 THEORETICAL APPROACHES TO COUNSELING Structure
3.0 Introduction 3.1 Objectives 3.2 Psychoanalytic and Adlerian Approach 3.2.1 Psychoanalytic Approach 3.2.2 The Phenomenological ( Adlerian) Approach 3.3 Person-Centered, Existential and Gestalt Approaches 3.3.1 Person-Centered Approach 3.3.2 Existential Approach 3.3.3 Gestalt Approach 3.4 Rational Emotive Therapy and Transactional Analysis 3.4.1 Rational Emotive Therapy 3.4.2 Transactional Analysis 3.5 Behavioural Approach 3.6 Reality Therapy 3.7 Let Us Sum Up 3.8 Unit End Questions 3.9 Suggested Readings
# 3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will be dealing with theoretical approaches to counseling. We start with psychoanalytic and Adlerian Approach, and put forward the view of human nature within which the concepts of psychoanalytical theory such as the id, ego and super ego are presented. Then we take up the role of counselor in psychoanalytical approach the goals and techniques in which we present the free association, dream analysis, analysis of transference and interpretation. Then we take up the phenomenological approach that is of Adler and discuss the theory ion terms of counseling. We consider the view of human nature in this theory, the role of counselor, goals of the phenomenological approach and the techniques thereof. This is followed by person centered, Existential and Gestalt Approaches and here woo we consider the view of human nature and indicate how it is differently viewed as compared to the psychoanalytical theory. We then consider the role of counsellor in person centered approach the goals and techniques in the same. The next section deals with rational emotive therapy and transactional analysis and how these are used in counseling. Finally we take up the behavioural approach, its principles, goals and techniques. Then we take up the reality therapy and discuss how counselors use the same.
# 3.1 OBJECTIVES
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
Discuss the need of theoretical approaches to counseling; 36
> Introduction
Define psychoanalytic approach to counseling;
Differentiate between cognitive and behavioural approach to counseling;
Explain the views of human nature proposed by different approaches;
Distinguish the role of a counselor in different counseling techniques; and
Explain the techniques used in different theoretical approaches.
# 3.2 PSYCHOANALYTIC AND ADLERIAN APPROACH
There are many theoretical models of psychology and counselling. Some are best utilised for particular situations and needs. Often, an eclectic approach, or the utilisation of several approaches is best for the resolution of problems. Effective counselors scrutinise all theories and match them to personal beliefs about the nature of people and change. Since the 1950s, psychologists have adopted a number of diverse approaches to understanding human nature and behaviour. Most counselling approaches fall within four broad theoretical categories: psychoanalytic, affective, cognitive and behavioural. In addition to these, there are Cognitive Behavioural approaches also which are gaining importance in recent years. Different approaches exist because there are different ways of explaining the phenomena, for example, emotions can be explained in terms of the thoughts associated with them or the physiological changes they produce. Psychologists try to explain psychological phenomena from a range of different perspectives, and so use different approaches.
# 3.2.1 Psychoanalytic Approach
This approach developed by Sigmund Freud in the early 1900s, involves analysing the root causes of behaviour and feelings by exploring the unconscious mind and the conscious minds relation to it. Psychoanalysis can take on a variety of forms, varying from practitioner to practitioner. Psychoanalytical and psychodynamic therapies are based on an individuals unconscious thoughts and perceptions that have developed throughout their childhood, and how these affect their current behaviour and thoughts. Psychoanalysis focuses on an individuals unconscious, deep rooted thoughts that often stem from childhood. Through free association, dreams or fantasies, clients can learn how to interpret deeply buried memories or experiences that may be causing them distress. i) View of Human Nature
The Freudian view of human nature is dynamic. According to him, human nature could be explained in terms of a conscious mind, a sub conscious and an unconscious mind. The conscious mind is attuned to the events in the present, to an awareness of the outside world. The subconscious mind is an area between the conscious and unconscious mind which contains aspects of both. Within the subconscious are hidden memories or forgotten experiences that can be remembered if a person is given the proper cues. Finally beneath the subconscious mind is the unconscious mind, the most powerful and least understood part of 37
> Theoretical Approaches to Counseling
the personality. The instinctual, repressed and powerful forces of the personality exist in the unconscious. ii) Id, Ego and Super Ego
Id is a concept equivalent to a demanding child and it is ruled by the pleasure principle. It refers to the raw, unorganised, inherited part of the personality. Its main goal is to reduce tension created by our primitive drives such as hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. Ego is a concept analogous to a traffic policeman and it is ruled by the reality principle. Egos job is to meet the needs of the id, while taking into consideration the reality of the situation. The ego is sometimes called the executive of an individuals personality. It is responsible for the higher cognitive functions such as intelligence, thoughtfulness and learning. Superego is the third concept which can be equaled to that of a judge and it is ruled by the moral principle. Superego represents the rights and wrongs of the society. It has two subparts: the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience prevents us from doing morally wrong or bad things. The ego ideal is that part of the superego that includes the rules and standards for good behaviours. These behaviours include those that are approved of by parental and other authority figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value, and accomplishment. The ego ideal motivates the person to do what is morally proper. The superego helps to control the id impulses, making them less selfish and more morally correct. iii) Ego-Defense Mechanisms
Ego-defense mechanisms are normal behaviours which operate on an unconscious level and tend to deny or distort reality. They help the individual to cope up with anxiety and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed. They have adaptive value if they do not become a style of life to avoid facing reality. Some of the major defense mechanisms described by psychoanalysts are the following: 1) Repression: It is the withdrawal of an unwanted idea, affect, or desire from consciousness by pushing it down, or repressing it, into the unconscious part of the mind. 2) Reaction formation: It is the fixation of an idea, affect, or desire in consciousness that is opposite to a feared unconscious impulse. 3) Projection: It is a form of defense in which unwanted feelings are displaced onto another person. 4) Regression: When confronted by stressful events, people sometimes abandon coping strategies and revert to patterns of behaviour used earlier in development. 5) Sublimation: It is the diversion or deflection of instinctual drives, usually sexual ones, into non-instinctual channels. It allows us to act out unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviours into a more acceptable form. 6) Denial: It is used to describe situations in which people seem unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth. 7) Rationalisation: It is the substitution of a safe and reasonable explanation for the true, but threatening cause of behaviour. 38
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8) Displacement: Displacement involves taking out our frustrations, feelings and impulses on people or objects that are less threatening. 9) Intellectualisation: It allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of the situation and instead focuses only on the intellectual component. iv) Role of a Counselor
Counselors who practice psychoanalysis play the role of experts. They encourage their clients to talk about whatever comes in their mind, especially childhood experiences. After a few face to face interactions such an environment is created, often have the client lie down while the analyst remains out of view, in which the client feels free to express difficult thoughts. The role of the analyst is to let the clients gain insight by reliving and working through the unresolved past experiences that come into focus during sessions. The development of transference is encouraged to help clients deal realistically with unconscious material. Psychoanalytic counselors also use diagnostic labels to classify clients and help develop appropriate plans for them. v) Goals
The goal of psychoanalysis varies according to the client, but they focus mainly on personal adjustment, usually inducing a reorganisation of internal forces within the person. In most cases, a primary goal is to help the client become more aware of the unconscious aspects of his or her personality, which include repressed memories and painful wishes. A second major goal is to help a client work through a developmental stage, not resolved in primary goal. If accomplished, clients become unstuck and are able to live more productively. A final goal is helping clients cope with the demands of the society in which they live. Psychoanalysis stresses environmental adjustment, especially in the areas of work and intimacy. vi) Techniques
Free Association: Client reports immediately without censoring any feelings or thoughts. The client is encouraged to relax and freely recall childhood memories or emotional experiences. In this way, unconscious material enters the conscious mind, and the counselor interprets it. At times clients resist free association by blocking their thoughts or denying their importance. Psychoanalysts make the most of these moments by attempting to help clients work through their resistance. Dream Analysis: Dream analysis is considered the first scientific approach to the study of dreams. In this clients report dreams to counselor on regular basis. Freud believed that dreams were a main avenue to understanding the unconscious. Counselor uses the royal road to the unconscious to bring unconscious material to light. Clients are encouraged to remember dreams. The counselor analyse two aspects; The Manifest Content (obvious meaning), and the Latent Content (hidden but true meaning). Analysis of Transference: Transference is the clients response to a counselor as if the counselor were some significant figure in the clients past, usually a parent figure. This allows the client to experience feelings that would otherwise be inaccessible. The counselor encourages this transference and interprets positive or negative feelings expressed. Analysis of transference allows the client to achieve insight into the influence of the past. Counter-transference: It is the reaction of the counselor towards the client that may interfere with objectivity. 39
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Interpretation: Interpretation should consider part of all above mentioned techniques. When interpreting, the counselor helps the client understanding the meaning of the past and present personal events. It consists of explanations and analysis of a clients thoughts, feelings and actions. Counselor points out, explains, and teaches the meanings of whatever is revealed. Counselors must carefully time the use of interpretation.
# 3.2.2 The Phenomenological (Adlerian) Approach
Alfred Adler attempts to view the world from the clients subjective frame of reference e.g. how life is in reality is less important than how the individual believes life to be. The basic premise is that human beings are always becoming, that were always moving toward the future, and our concerns are geared toward our subjective goals rather than an objective past. We are constantly aiming towards what Adler calls superiority. When we have unrealistic or unattainable goals, this can lead to self-defeating behaviours and discouragement which may foster neurosis, psychosis, substance abuse, criminal behaviour, or suicide. i) View of Human Nature
He emphasised that it is not the childhood experiences that are crucial but it is our present interpretation of these events. He thought that people are primarily motivated by social interest. It is Adlers most significant and distinctive concept which refers to an individuals attitude toward and awareness of being a part of the human community. He measured mental health by the degree to which we successfully share with others and are concerned with their welfare. He explained how happiness and success are largely related to social connectedness. Another major component of his theory is that people strive to become successful. Each person strives for growth and has a need for wholeness. If this need is fulfilled, the person develops a superiority complex otherwise the person can develop inferiority complex. His theory places considerable emphasis on birth order and sibling relationships. Adlers explained five psychological positions: Oldest child receives more attention, spoiled, center of attention. Second of only two behaves as if in a race, often opposite to first child. Middle often feels squeezed out. Youngest is being considered as the baby. Only - does not learn to share or cooperate with other children, learns to deal with adults. ii) Role of Counselor
Adlerian counselors function primarily as diagnosticians, teachers and models in equalitarian relationships they establish with their clients. They try to assess why clients are oriented to a certain way of thinking and behaving. The counselor makes an assessment by gathering information on the family constellation and clients earliest memories. The counselor then shares interpretations, impressions, opinions and feelings with clients. The client is encouraged to examine and change a faulty life style by developing social interest. 40
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iii) Goals
The goals of Adlerian counseling revolve around helping people develop healthy life styles. One of the major goals is to develop social interest. The four major goals of the therapeutic process:
Establishment and maintenance of an egalitarian counseling relationship.
Analysis of a clients life style.
Interpretation of clients life style in such a way that [promotes insight].
Re-orientation and re-education of the client with accompanying behaviour change. iv) Techniques
To establish above mentioned goals and to accomplish behaviour change, counselors use following techniques: 1) Confrontation: The counselor challenges clients to consider their own private logic. When clients examine this logic, they often realise they can change it and their behaviour. 2) Asking the question: The counselor asks, what would be different if you were well? The question is often asked during the initial interview, but it is appropriate any time. 3) Encouragement: Counselors encourage their clients by stating their beliefs that behaviour change is possible. It is the key to make productive life style changes. 4) Acting as if: Clients are instructed to act as if they are the persons they want to be. 5) Task Setting: Clients initially set short term range, attainable goals and eventually work up to long term and realistic objectives. 6) Catching oneself: Clients learn to become aware of self destructive behaviours or thoughts. At first counselor may help in this process, but eventually this responsibility is taken over by clients. 7) Push Button: Clients are encouraged to realise that they have choices about what stimuli in their lives they pay attention to. The technique is like pushing the button because clients can choose to remember negative or positive experiences.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Differentiate between id, ego and superego. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 41
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2) Describe the different defense mechanisms. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3) Explain the different types of goals in psychoanalysis. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 4) How does Adlerian approach view human nature? ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 5) Describe the importance of birth order and sibling relationship in Adlerian theory. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
# 3.3 PERSON-CENTERED, EXISTENTIAL AND GESTALT APPROACHES 3.3.1 Person Centered Approach
Person-Centered approach, founded by Carl Rogers in the 1940s, is based on the belief that people have the capacity and the right to move toward self-actualisation. This approach views people as rational, forward-moving, and realistic beings. He contended that negative, antisocial emotions are the result of frustrated basic impulses.This approach views the client as their own best authority on their own experience, and the client is fully capable of fulfilling their own potential for growth. 42
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i) View of Human Nature
Rogers believed that people are essentially good. Humans are characteristically positive, forward- moving, constructive, realistic and trustworthy. Each of us has the innate ability to reach our full potential. As infants we are born with it, but because of early experiences, we may lose our connection to it. The self concept we develop in response to our early experiences may tend to alienate us from our true self. In this theory there is no such thing as mental illness. It is just a matter of being disconnected from our self-potential. This approach is often considered the most optimistic approach to human potential. Rogers views the individual from a phenomenological perspective, that is according to him the important aspect is the persons perception of reality rather than an event itself. His ideas are often referred to as Self Theory. The self is an out growth of what a person experiences, and an awareness of self helps a person differentiate him or herself from others. ii) Role of a Counselor
The counselors role is a holistic one. He or she sets up and promotes a climate in which the client is free and is encouraged to explore all aspects of self. The counselor strives to develop a greater degree of independence and integration for individuals in their surroundings and the people in their lives. Clients are prepared to be open to the experience of counseling, to have trust in themselves, to evaluate themselves internally, and pursue a willingness towards continued growth. Clients will experience this technique differently depending on perceptions of both the past and the possibilities of future events. Exploring a wider range of beliefs and feelings help clients in this process. It helps clients to better appreciate who they are and what they are capable of accomplishing. iii) Goals
The goals of person centered counseling considers the client as a person, not his or her problem. Rogers emphasises that people need to be assisted in learning how to cope with situations. The client moves towards the goals of realisation, fulfillment, autonomy, self determination, and perfection by becoming more realistic in their perceptions. The aim is to make them more confident, more self directed, more positively valued by themselves and less likely to be upset by stress. They should be healthier, integrated, and well functioning persons in their personality structure. iv) Techniques
The counselor as a person is vital to person centered counseling. Counsellors display openness, empathic understanding, independence, spontaneity, acceptance, mutual respect and intimacy. They encourage clients to work toward achieving these same conditions as ultimate counselling goals. The primary techniques are the counsellors attitudes toward people in the following: 1) Unconditional positive regard: It means that the counsellor accepts the client unconditionally and non judgmentally. The client is free to explore all thoughts and feelings, positive or negative, without danger of rejection or condemnation. Crucially, the client is free to explore and to express without having to do anything in particular or meet any particular standards of behaviour to earn positive regard from the counsellor. 43
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2) Empathic understanding: It means that the counsellor accurately understands the clients thoughts, feelings, and meanings from the clients own perspective. When the counsellor perceives what the world is like from the clients point of view, it demonstrates not only that that view has value, but also that the client is being accepted. 3) Congruence: It means that the counsellor is authentic and genuine and transparent to the client. There is no air of authority or hidden knowledge, and the client does not have to speculate about what the counsellor is really like. Rogers mentioned the following six core conditions for personality change:
Two persons are in psychological contact.
The client is in a state of incongruence.
The counsellor is congruent and involved in the relationship.
The counsellor experiences unconditional positive regard for the client.
The counsellor experiences understanding of the clients frame of reference.
The communication of empathic and positive regard is achieved. Methods that help promote the counselor client relationship include:
Active and passive listening
Reflection of thoughts and feelings
Clarification
Summarizing
Confrontation of contradictions
General or open leads that help client self exploration.
# 3.3.2 Existential Approach
Existential approach can be described as a philosophical approach that is not designed to cure people but instead helps the client reflect and search for value and meaning in life. Existentialism understands the human to be challenged by the reality of temporary existence, and the view that life has no inherent meaning and that the meaning had to be constructed. Authentic human beings are those who could face existential futility and yet still go on to construct a meaningful life. The existential perspective was introduced into the US by Rollo May. He believed that individuals can only be understood in terms of their subjective sense of self. May was concerned with peoples loss of faith in values. If we lose our commitment to a set of values we will feel lonely and empty. Life will be meaningless. Viktor Frankl, a famous existentialist, believed that the prime motive of human behaviour is the will to meaning. In order to find a meaning in our troubled existence we need to discover meaning through values and we discover our values through work, through love for others and through confrontation with our own suffering. i) View of Human Nature
According to the existentialists, human beings form their lives by the choices they make. They focus on the freedom of choice and the action that goes with it. 44
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We have no existence apart from the world. Being in the world is mans existence. The basic issue in life is that life inevitably ends in death. Thus we experience angst or anguish because of our awareness of deaths inevitability. According to Frankl (1962), the meaning of life always changes but it never ceases to be. We can discover lifes meaning in three ways:
By doing a deed. That is, by achieving or accomplishing something.
By experiencing a value. As for instance experience the value of work of nature, culture or love.
By Suffering. That is, finding a proper attitude towards unalterable fate. ii) Role of a Counsellor
Existential counsellors are focused on helping the client achieve and expand their self awareness. It is assumed that once self awareness is achieved the client can examine new ways of dealing with problems and accept the responsibility of choosing. The role of the counsellor is to facilitate the clients own encounter with himself or herself, to work alongside him in exploring and understanding better his values, assumptions and ideals. The counsellor is concerned about what matters most to the client and to avoid imposing her own judgments, and to help the client to elaborate on his own perspective. The counsellors responsibility is to be aware of his or her own biases and prejudices. The counsellors goal is to understand the clients meaning rather than their own and recognising the clients assumptions and underlying life themes. The counsellor must be sensitive to and help the client explore his weaknesses, limitations and responsibilities as well as his strengths, opportunities and freedoms. iii) Goals
The goal of this technique is not to cure people of disorders, not to simply get rid of symptoms. Rather it is to help them become aware of what they are doing and encourage them to act, make life changing decisions etc. It is aimed at helping people get out of their rigid roles and see more clearly the ways in which they have been leading a narrow and restricted existence. The specific goals of existential counselling are:
To enable people to become more truthful with themselves.
To help the clients to reflect upon and understand their existence.
To increase self awareness and authentic living.
To take responsibility for decisions.
To encourage clients to find their own meanings and truths.
To help people examine roots of some of their anxieties and learn how to better cope with them.
To get the person to believe to experience life and to live more fully in each moment iv) Techniques
Existential therapy is not considered as a system of highly developed techniques. Subjective understanding of clients is primary and techniques are secondary. It 45
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is not technique oriented. The interventions are based on philosophical views about the nature of human existence. It is free to draw techniques from other orientations. The use of counsellors self is the core of therapy. It is commonly integrated within other frameworks. The most effective and powerful technique counsellors have is the relationship with the client. They also make use of confrontation. Existential counsellors borrow some techniques such as imagery exercises, awareness exercises goal setting activities etc., from other models.
# 3.3.3 Gestalt Approach
Gestalt approach is an integrative orientation in that it focuses on whatever is in the clients awareness. This term was first used as the title of a book, written by Fritz Perls, et.al (1951), Gestalt, a German word meaning whole . It operates as a therapy by keeping the person in what is known as the here and now. In this approach, feelings, thoughts, body sensations and actions are all used as a guide to understanding what is central for the client in each moment. The centrality of whatever is in the clients awareness is an ideal way to understand the world of the client. Unresolved conflicts are worked out in the counseling session as if they are happening in that moment. An emphasis is placed on personal responsibility for ones own well being. i) View of Human Nature
Human nature is rooted in existential philosophy, phenomenology, and field theory. Individuals have the capacity to self regulate in their environment. Gestalt counsellors believe that human beings work for wholeness and completeness in life. Self actualising tendency emerges through interaction in environment. Each person tries to integrate self into healthy, unified whole. Overdependence on intellectual experience and inability to resolve unfinished business causes problems, such as the client may lose contact with environment, or become over involved, may encounter unfinished business, or become fragmented. ii) Role of a Counselor
Gestalt counsellor can help their client to both work through and move beyond their painful emotional blocks. By following their clients ongoing process, with special attention to both the therapeutic relationship and the clients style of interrupting that process, the counsellor uses appropriate techniques. The counsellor must pay attention to clients awareness, to clients body language, nonverbal language, and inconsistence between verbal and nonverbal message (e.g., anger and smile). The counselors must create atmosphere that promotes growth. The counselor is exciting, energetic, fully human and personally involved. iii) Goals
The main goal is to increase the clients awareness of what is. Awareness includes knowing the environment, knowing oneself, accepting oneself, and being able to make contact. Stay with their awareness, unfinished business will emerge. Change occurs through a heightened awareness of what the client is experiencing moment to moment. The approach stresses present awareness and the quality of contact between the individual and the environment. 46
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Four Major Principles of Gestalt Therapy are: Holism interested in the whole person emphasis on integration thoughts, feelings, behaviours, body, & dreams. Field Theory organism must be seen in its environment or its context as part of a constantly changing filed-relational, in flux, interrelated and in process Figure Formation Process how individual moment to moment organises environment: 1) Background=undifferentiated field or ground 2) Figure=Emerging focus of attention 3) Organismic self-regulation =-restore equilibrium or contribute to growth and change iv) Techniques
Some of the most innovative techniques ever developed are found in Gestalt therapy. These techniques take two forms: i) Exercise and ii) Experiments. Exercises are readymade techniques such as enactment of fantasies, role playing, psychodrama, dream work, empty chair, confrontation such as what and how, making the rounds, exaggeration. Experiments on the other hand are activities and grow out of the interaction between counsellor and clients. They are not planned. The experiments are to assist clients self awareness of what they are doing and how they are doing it. Gestalt experiments include the following:
Internal dialogue exercise,
Making the rounds,
Reversal technique,
Rehearsal exercise,
Exaggeration exercise,
Staying with the feelings.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss the role of counselor in the person-centred approach. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 47
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2) Describe the goals of counseling in existential approach. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3) Explain the major principles of Gestalt therapy. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
# 3.4 RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY AND TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS 3.4.1 Rational Emotive Therapy
Albert Ellis started Cognitive Behaviour Therapy in 1955. This technique assumes that cognitions, emotions, and behaviours interact and have a reciprocal cause and effect relationship. It is very directive and concerned as much with thinking as with feeling. It also teaches that our emotions stem mainly from our beliefs, evaluations, interpretations, and reactions to life situations. It is an educational process in which clients learn to identify and dispute irrational beliefs that are maintained by self indoctrination and replace ineffective ways of thinking with effective and rational cognitions. i) View of Human Nature
RET assumes that we all are born with a potential for both rational and irrational thinking. There is a biological and cultural tendency to think crookedly and to needlessly disturb ourselves. Humans are self talking, self evaluating and self sustaining. We develop emotional and behavioural problems when we mistake simple preferences (love, approval, success) for dire needs. There is a tendency to invent disturbing beliefs and keep ourselves disturbed through our self talk. Humans have the capacity to change their cognitive, emotive, and behavioural processes. ii) Role of a Counsellor
Counsellors are active and direct in this approach. They act as instructors who teach and correct clients cognitions. Therefore they must listen carefully for illogical and faulty statements from the clients and challenge their beliefs. The counsellor focusses on the thoughts and beliefs of the client trying to identify those, which create problems. Ellis identifies several characteristics desirable for counsellors. 48
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They need to be:
bright,
knowledgeable,
empathetic,
persistent, and
scientific. iii) Goals
The primary goal of RET is to focus on helping people realise that they can live more rational and productive lives and to change the way clients think by using their automatic thoughts to reach the core schemata and begin to introduce the idea of schema restructuring. Another goal of RET is to help people change self defeating habits of thought or behaviour. One way of teaching them through ABC of RET A = existence of fact, event, behaviour, attitude of individual. B = persons belief C = emotional & behavioural consequence or reaction of individual D = disputing intervention-challenge beliefs E = effective philosophy after disputing F = new set of feelings Human beings are largely responsible for creating their own emotional reactions and disturbances. Goal is to show people how to change irrational beliefs that directly cause disturbed emotional consequences. iv) Techniques
RET encompasses a number of diverse techniques. Two primary ones are teaching and disputing. In the first few sessions, counsellors teach their clients the anatomy of an emotion, that feelings are a result of thoughts, not events and that self talk influences emotion. Disputing thoughts take one of three forms: cognitive, imaginal and behavioural. Cognitive disputation involves the use of direct questions, logical reasoning, and persuasion. It also uses syllogisms, that is a deductive form of reasoning.
A(Activating Event) B(Belief) C(Consequence Emotional and Behavioural) D(Disputing Intervention) E(Effect An Effective Philosophy is Developed) F(New Feeling) 49
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Imaginal disputation depends on the clients ability to imagine and explore a technique known as rational emotive imagery (REI). Behavioural disputation involves behaving in a way that is opposite of the clients usual way. Two other powerful techniques are confrontation and encouragement.
# 3.4.2 Transactional Analysis
Transactional analysis is another cognitive theory formulated by Eric Berne in the early 1960s. He believed that the majority of our life experiences are recorded in our subconscious minds in an unaltered fashion and become a part of the way we behave. The behaviour is subconsciously designed to get reactions and determine how others feel about us. It is a method of dealing with behavioural disorders and can be used to manage classroom behaviour if we understand that childrens acceptable and unacceptable behaviour is designed to ascertain how others feel about them. He believed that there were three states of mind in all humans, no matter how old they were, called the ego states. Berne believed that a lot of people get stuck in one ego state more than the other two and that this may be due to early childhood experiences. His theory was that in childhood we have a life position assigned to us, because of the experiences we have from birth onwards. He thinks there are four possible life positions: Im not OK, Youre OK; Im not OK, Youre not OK; Im OK, Youre not OK; Im OK, Youre OK. i) Views of Human Nature
Transactional analysis is an optimistic theory based on the assumption that people can change despite an unfortunate events of the past. It focuses on four methods of understanding and predicting human behaviour:
Structural analysis: understanding what is happening within the person.
Transactional analysis: describing what happens between two or more people
Game analysis understanding transactions that lead to bad feelings
Script analysis understand a persons life plan ii) Role of a Counsellor
The counsellor initially plays the role of a teacher. The counsellor helps the client obtain the tools necessary for change in the present. Counsellors work contractually on solving here and now problems and focuses on creating productive problem solving behaviours. Using transactional analysis, counsellors establish an egalitarian, safe and mutually respectful working relationship with their clients. This working relationship provides tools which the clients can utilise in their day to day functions to improve the quality of their lives. iii) Goals
The primary goal of TA focuses on helping clients transform themselves from frogs into princes and princesses. 50
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Others goals are:
to learn the language and concepts underlying Transactional analysis,
to learn analyse relationships with one another in terms of TA, and
to develop our ability to engage in straight, effective communication with one another on a daily basis. iv) Techniques
TA has initiated a number of techniques for helping clients to reach their goals. The most common are structural analysis, transactional analysis, game analysis and script analysis. Other techniques include: Treatment Contract, Interrogation, Specification, Confrontation, Explanation, Illustration, Confirmation, Interpretation and Crystallisation.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Describe the assumptions of Rational Emotive Therapy about human nature. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2) Explain the A B C D E F model of Rational Emotive Therapy. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3) Describe the four life positions as mentioned in transactional analysis. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................
# 3.5 BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
This approach is based on the premise that primary learning comes from experience and applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviours. The initial concern is to help the client analyse behaviour, define problems, and select goals. Behavioural Therapy is effective for individuals who 51
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require treatment for some sort of behaviour change, such as addictions, phobias and anxiety disorders. It concentrates on the here and now without focusing on the past to find a reason for the behaviour. The behavioural approach says that people behave in the way that their environment has taught them to behave, e.g., through rewards and punishments, modeling, etc. So this approach attempts to change the way the environment reinforces particular behaviour and works at applying learning principles to help people to learn new behaviours by behavioural experiments, role playing, assertiveness training, and self management training. Four Aspects of Behaviour Therapy 1) Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning certain respondent behaviours, such as knee jerks and salivation, are elicited from a passive organism. 2) Operant Conditioning
It focuses on actions that operate on the environment to produce consequences. If the environmental change brought about by the behaviour is reinforcing, the chances are strengthened that the behaviour will occur again. If the environmental changes produce no reinforcement, the chances are lessened that the behaviour will recur. 3) Social Learning Approach
It gives prominence to the reciprocal interactions between an individuals behaviour and the environment. 4) Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
It emphasises cognitive processes and private events (such as clients self-talk) as mediators of behaviour change. i) View of Human Nature
As the behaviourist views human nature, humans are neither good nor bad but are living organisms capable of experiencing a variety of behaviours. Their personality is composed of traits. The behaviourist believes that people can conceptualise and control their behaviour and have the ability to learn new behaviours. In addition, people can influence the behaviour of others as well as be influenced by the behaviour of others. Behaviourists concentrate on behavioural processes as they are closely associated with overt behaviour and believe that all behaviour is learned, whether it is adaptive or maladaptive. They also believe that learning and development occur in one of the three ways:
respondent learning,
operant conditioning and
social modeling. ii) Role of a Counsellor
A counsellor may take one of the several roles, depending on his or her behavioural orientation. The counsellor functions as a consultant, teacher, advisor and facilitator. The behaviour counsellor tries to help the individual to learn new and more adaptable behaviours and to unlearn old non adaptable behaviours. The behaviour counsellor focuses attention on the individuals ongoing behaviours 52
> Introduction
and their consequences in his own environment. He tries to restructure the environment so that more adaptable patterns of behaviour can be learned and non adaptable patterns of behaviour can be unlearned. An effective behavioural counsellor operates from a broader perspective and involves the client in every phase of counselling. iii) Goals
Basically behavioural counsellors want to help clients make good adjustments to life circumstances and achieve personal and professional objectives. A major step is to reach mutually agreed upon goals. Blackham and Silberman(1971) suggests four steps in this process: 1) Defining the problem
The clients are asked to specify when, where, how and with whom the problem arises. 2) Take a developmental history
Knowledge about how the client has handled past circumstances. 3) Establish specific goals
Counselors help clients break down goals into small, achievable goals. 4) Determine the best method for change
Helping the client to reach desired goal by choosing the appropriate method. Continuous assessment of the effectiveness of method is must. iv) Techniques
General behavioural techniques are applicable to all behaviour theories, although a given technique may applicable to a particular approach at a given time in a specific circumstance.
Systematic desensitisation: This is a technique used specifically with phobias. It helps the client to pair relaxation with previously feared stimuli.
Aversive therapy: It is almost the opposite of systematic desensitisation and has the client pair some aversive stimuli (e.g., nausea, pain, disturbing images, etc.) with some behaviour that he/she is having difficulty giving up. For example, a person trying to quit drinking might take a drug that makes her nauseous whenever she drinks alcohol. Both systematic desensitisation and aversive therapy make use of classical conditioning learning principleslearning that occurs when things get paired together. Systematic desensitisation teaches the client a new thing by pairing relaxation with something they fear whereas Aversive therapy teaches a new thing by pairing a bad experience with some behaviour they want to eliminate.
Behaviour Modification programs: These approaches try to increase positive behaviour and decrease negative behaviour by using reinforcements and punishments in the most effective ways based on learning principles. The counselor will try to help the parents identify in what ways the undesired behaviour is being reinforced and eliminate that reinforcement and help them develop ways to reinforce desired behaviour. 53
> Theoretical Approaches to Counseling
Use of Reinforcers: Reinforcers are those events which increase the probability of occurrence of a desired behaviour in the future by applying consequences that depend on the behaviour in question.
Positive Reinforcement: The administration of positive consequences to workers who perform desired behaviours- Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, awards.
Negative Reinforcement: The removal of negative consequences when workers perform desired behaviours-Nagging, complaining.
Punishment: Administering negative consequences to undesirable behaviours in an effort to decrease the probability that the behaviour will occur again in the future.
Shaping: It is a process in which undifferentiated operant behaviours are gradually changed into a desired behaviour pattern by the reinforcement of success approximations, so that the behaviour gets closer and closer to the target behaviour.
Extinction: When pairing of conditioned and unconditional stimulus stops then association weakens and conditioned response becomes less frequent till it disappears.
Generalisation: Conditioned response occurs in response to stimuli which are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination: Conditioned response does not occur to all possible similar stimuli-learned difference between stimuli The cognitive behavioural approach examines the patients beliefs and behaviours. Individuals hold beliefs about themselves and relationships that affect behaviour. Negative beliefs lead to maladaptive behaviours. By examining and challenging these beliefs with new information, subsequent new behaviours can change. This approach also examines behaviours directly so that new, more adaptive behaviours can be developed. This approach is especially beneficial for changing habits, learned behavioural patterns, phobias, and many forms of depression.
# 3.6 REALITY THERAPY
Counselling approach developed by psychiatrist William Glasser helps people gain control over their lives by self-evaluating their behaviour, then choosing behaviour that meets their needs effectively and responsibly. It is based on choice theory that how we deal with unsatisfying relationships. Clients choose their behaviours to cope with unsatisfying relationships (depressing, obsessing, and worrying). We often mistakenly choose misery in our best attempt to meet our needs. We act responsibly when we meet our needs without keeping others from meeting their needs. Two basic needs which are important are: 1) To love and to be loved, and 2) To feel worth. i) View of Human Nature
William Glassers Reality technique focuses on consciousness that human beings operate on a conscious level and that they are not driven by unconscious forces 54
> Introduction
or instincts. A second belief about human nature is that there is a health or growth force within everyone. The force manifests at two levels, viz. (i) physical and (ii) psychological. Physical needs or survival needs like food, water, shelter etc. are automatically controlled by the body. The four primary psychological needs are:
Belonging the need for friends, family and love;
Power the need for self esteem, recognition and competition;
Freedom the need to make choices and decisions; and
Fun the need to play, laughter, learning and recreation. Behaviour is purposeful because it is destined to close the gap between what we want and what we perceive we are getting. All behaviour has four components: Acting, Thinking, Feeling, and Physiology ii) Role of a Counsellor
The counselor basically serves as a teacher and model, accepting the client in a warm and involved way while focusing the client on the control if displayed thoughts and actions. The counsellor assists the client in dealing with present and establishes satisfying relationship. The counsellor is a role model of a human who knows what life is all about and is also one who is successful in dealing with life and not afraid to discuss any subject with their clients, teaches them to behave in more effective ways and helps client look for better choices. iii) Goals
1) The primary goal of reality technique is to make their clients psychologically strong and rational. They must learn to be responsible for their own behaviour that affects themselves and others. 2) The second goal is to help clients in knowing what they want in life. It is vital to know the goals of life if we want to act responsibly. 3) Other goals are to help clients to get connected or reconnected with people they have chosen to place in their quality world; 4) To teach clients choice theory and to teach client to behave in more effective ways. iv) Technique
Reality therapy is an action oriented technique. Some of its more effective and active techniques are:
teaching,
employing,
humor,
confrontation,
role playing,
involvement and
contracts. 55
> Theoretical Approaches to Counseling
It uses the WDEP system (Given in the box). W. Wants: What do you want to be and do? D. Doing and Direction: What are you doing? Where do you want to go? E. Evaluation: Does your present behaviour have a reasonable chance of getting you what you want? P: Planning SAMIC- Simple, Attainable, Measurable, Immediate and Controlled. There are eight steps in reality therapy that strategically incorporates its goals and techniques and these are given below: 1) Develop a relationship with client. (Involvement). 2) Focus on behaviour. Ask what are you doing? 3) Client evaluates his/her behaviour. Ask is your behaviour helping you or getting you what you want? 4) If not, make a plan to change your behaviour. 5) Get a commitment to carry out plan. Perhaps sign contract. 6) Accept no excuses when plan is not carried out. Simply remind client of plan. Perhaps revise plan. 7) Do not punish. Clients who fail already have a failure identity. Punishment does no good. 8) Never give up.
Self Assessment Questions
1) Discuss the role of counselor in behaviour therapy. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 2) How does reality therapy view human nature? ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 3) Explain the technique of reality therapy. ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................... 56
> Introduction
# 3.7 LET US SUM UP
There are many theoretical models of psychology and counseling. Most counseling approaches fall within four broad theoretical categories: psychoanalytic, affective, cognitive and behavioural. The Freudian view of human nature is dynamic. According to him, human nature could be explained in terms of a conscious mind, a sub conscious and an unconscious mind whereas Adler focuses on our present interpretation of the events. He thought that people are primarily motivated by social interest. Existentialism understands the human to be challenged by the reality of temporary existence, and the view that life has no inherent meaning; meaning had to be constructed. The person centered approach views the client as their own best authority on their own experience, and the client is fully capable of fulfilling their own potential for growth. In Gestalt approach, feelings, thoughts, body sensations and actions are all used as a guide to understand client behaviour in each moment. The centrality of whatever is in the clients awareness is an ideal way to understand the world of the client. The behaviour approach is based on the premise that primary learning comes from experience and applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviours. Reality approach is based on choice theory that how we deal with unsatisfying relationships. Clients choose their behaviours to cope with unsatisfying relationships. Each theory has its own benefits and limitation. The counselor should use an integrative approach depending upon the problem of the client.
# 3.8 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) Define psychoanalytic approach and its view on human nature. 2) Describe the different techniques of psychoanalysis. 2) Explain Adlers perspective. 3) Discuss the goals and techniques involved in behaviour approach to counselling. 4) What is Transactional Analysis? Explain the role of counsellor in this technique? 5) Describe the techniques involved in Person Centered Approach. 6) Describe the important features of Existential therapy. 7) How do counselors use Rational Emotive therapyapporach.
# 3.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
Corey, G. (2008): Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy . USA: The Thompson Brooks Narayana Rao (2008): Counseling and Guidance . New Delhi: Tata Mc-Graw Hill Samuel T. Gladding (2004): Counseling Theories: Essential Concepts and Applications . Publisher: Prentice Hall Baruth & Robinson (1987): An Introduction to the Counseling Profession.
Prentice-Hall