AP Psychology Unit 4: Learning Overview

Introduction

• Part of the Ultimate Review Packet with review videos, study guides, practice quizzes, and AP tests.
• Immediate task: have the study guide ready to answer questions as the video progresses.

Key Concepts of Learning

Types of Learning

• Association: Linking experiences based on order; a simple form of learning.
• Observational Learning: Learning by watching others (e.g., improving skills by observing).
• Latent Learning: Learning that becomes apparent when there is motivation.
• Social Learning: Learning through social interaction, like copying body language.
• Insight Learning: Solving problems by mentally working through them.
• Trial and Error Learning: Trying different solutions until one works.
• Accidental Reinforcement: Leads to superstitious behavior by associating unrelated events.

Key Contributors

• John Garcia: Explored association, notably taste aversion.
• Albert Bandura: Coined observational learning; known for the Bobo doll experiment.
• Edward Tolman: Studied latent learning with rats in mazes.
• Edward Thorndike: Proposed trial and error learning.
• Ivan Pavlov: Father of classical conditioning.
• B.F. Skinner: Described operant conditioning.
• Robert Rescorla: Focused on cognitive elements in learning.
• John B. Watson: Explored learning’s effect on behavior.

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment: Conditioned dogs to associate a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus).
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers response.
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response.
  • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially elicits no response.
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now triggers response.
  • Conditioned Response (CR): Response to conditioned stimulus.
• Processes:
  • Acquisition: Associating NS with UCS.
  • Extinction: Diminishing CR when CS is not paired with UCS.
  • Spontaneous Recovery: CR reappears after a pause.
  • Stimulus Generalization: CR elicited by similar stimuli.
  • Stimulus Discrimination: Differentiating between CS and other stimuli.
  • Higher-Order Conditioning: A new NS becomes a CS.

Operant Conditioning

• B.F. Skinner: Developed principles of operant conditioning using the Skinner box.
  • Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely.
• Reinforcement and Punishment:
  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an undesirable stimulus to increase behavior.
  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.
• Reinforcement Schedules:
  • Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
  • Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set time.
  • Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after a random number of responses.
  • Variable Interval: Reinforcement after random time intervals.
• Overjustification Effect: Extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation.

Social and Cognitive Factors in Learning

• Biological Factors: Genetic predispositions, adaptive responses, neural mirroring.
• Psychological Factors: Previous experiences, expectations, generalizations.
• Social/Cultural Influences: Cultural background, peer groups, family.
• Preparedness: Biological predisposition to learn survival-related associations.
• Instinctive Drift: Tendency to revert to instinctive behaviors.

Key Experiments

• Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner: Explored cognition in conditioning with rats.
• Edward Tolman: Cognitive maps in rats; latent learning.

Learning Strategies

• Social Learning: Learning through observation and interaction.
• Observational Learning: Learning by witnessing others’ behaviors and consequences.
• Locus of Control:
  • External: Outcomes determined by external factors.
  • Internal: Outcomes influenced by personal control.
• Coping Strategies:
  • Problem-Focused: Directly address the stressor.
  • Emotion-Focused: Manage emotional response to stressor.

Conclusion

• Reminder to review answers with the answer key and take practice quizzes.
• Encouragement to explore additional resources for comprehensive understanding.