Overview
This lecture summarizes key theories and findings related to human romantic relationships as covered in A-level psychology, focusing on evolutionary, psychological, and social explanations for attraction, relationship formation, maintenance, breakdown, virtual and parasocial relationships.
Evolutionary Explanations for Partner Preferences
- Human reproductive behavior is shaped by survival and reproductive needs.
- Sexual selection involves intersexual selection (mate choice, usually by females) and intrasexual selection (mate competition, usually by males).
- Females tend to prefer mates with resources and dominance; males prefer signs of fertility (e.g., youth, 0.7 waist-hip ratio).
- Studies (Dunbar & Waynforth, Clark & Hatfield, Singh) support gender differences predicted by evolutionary theory.
- Criticisms include reinforcing gender stereotypes (alpha bias), not explaining homosexual preferences, and being socially sensitive.
Factors Affecting Attraction
- Self-disclosure: Sharing personal information increases liking and relationship quality (Social Penetration Theory).
- Reciprocity and appropriateness are key; over-disclosure or indiscriminate sharing can decrease attraction.
- Physical attractiveness is valued due to perceived genetic health; the halo effect causes attractive people to be seen as more capable.
- Matching hypothesis: People pair with partners of similar attractiveness to avoid rejection and maintain relationships.
- Filter Theory: Attraction depends on social demography, similarity of attitudes, and complementarity.
Theories of Relationship Maintenance
- Social Exchange Theory: Relationships are maintained through cost-benefit analysis and comparison to alternatives.
- Equity Theory: Satisfaction is highest when both partners perceive equal rewards and costs.
- Investment Theory: Commitment increases with satisfaction, investment made, and lack of attractive alternatives.
- Research suggests investment theory explains why some stay in unsatisfying relationships.
Relationship Breakdown
- Duck’s Phase Model: Relationships end through stages—Intrapsychic, Dyadic, Social, Grave-dressing (and Resurrection).
- Reasons for breakdown include pre-existing doom, mechanical failure, or sudden catastrophic events.
- Breakup process is supported by research but may vary by age and context.
Virtual Relationships in Social Media
- Online relationships develop faster due to absence of gating (no face-to-face barriers).
- Communication lacks non-verbal cues, and anonymity can increase intimacy but also misrepresentation.
- Studies show online relationships can be as durable as offline ones, but theory needs updating due to changes in technology.
Parasocial Relationships
- Parasocial relationships are one-sided, often seen between fans and celebrities.
- Three levels: entertainment-social, intense-personal, borderline-pathological.
- Absorption-addiction model: Fans seek escape and identity; behaviors may escalate like an addiction.
- Attachment theory links parasocial relationships to insecure childhood attachments.
- Research supports links to anxiety and problematic real-life relationships; some positive social roles exist.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Intersexual selection — Mate choice based on desirable traits, typically by females.
- Intrasexual selection — Competition among the same sex for mates, typically by males.
- Self-disclosure — Sharing personal information to build intimacy.
- Halo effect — The tendency to attribute positive traits to attractive individuals.
- Matching hypothesis — The idea that people choose partners similar in attractiveness.
- Social Exchange Theory — A theory viewing relationships as cost-benefit analyses.
- Equity Theory — Focuses on fairness and equal rewards/costs in relationships.
- Investment Theory — Commitment is based on satisfaction, alternatives, and level of investment.
- Parasocial relationship — A one-sided relationship with limited or no reciprocal awareness.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review detailed explanations of models and studies in longer videos if concepts remain unclear.
- Use flashcards or the psych boost app to test your recall on these theories and studies.
- Prepare model answers for common exam questions on relationship theories and research.
- Read further on recent developments in online and parasocial relationships.