three competition on the east coast of the Mainland F Farley champer and Vietnam political FF economies the previous chapter's discussion of Fan's history has shown that early Southeast Asian monarchies gained control over population clusters by conquering or networking with a number of Allied and competing regionally based Elites Fan's resulting political system was based on the interdependence of political economic and religious institutions a form of hierarchical networking that culminated in a Royal Court Fan's sovereignty was though inherently unstable because it overly depended on the fortunes of the international Mari time trade routes rather than on the income from its productive Hinterlands this chapter will initially examine the champer successor network of Port polies on the central and southern Vietnam Coast which was subject to the E and flow of the international trade reflected in the fluctuations in cam sovereignty the the cam state was dispersed among several competing River Valley Courts centered in productive Downstream River Valley Rands that not only provisioned International Traders making stopovers on their Straits of malaa to China voyages but also linked the coastal ports of trade to productive Upstream Highland sources of Commodities in high International demand in contrast champers di Viet naor to the north which was initially based in the fertile Red River plain and Delta in and around modern Han exhibited developmental patterns towards centralization when the Vietnamese dvet State declared its autonomy from Chinese overlordship in the 10th Century its courts proactive support of economic expansion in both its Agricultural and Commercial sectors would ultimately reinforce Royal hegemony relative to competing Elites and institutions 67 map 3.1 champer and Vietnam in the pre- 1500 era the champer realm in overview it is now widely accepted that the champer realm was never a unified King Dom but was instead the name of a collection of ports of trade and their adjacent TR Sun Mountain Range Plateau Hinterlands from roughly above modern day Hue in the North to the northern edge of the Mong River delta in the south from the 18th parallel in the north to fanat and banoa at the 11th parallel in the South the earliest Sanskrit inscription in the cam realm dates to the 4th century at vogan near the NH Trang port in roughly this same era most of the archaeological evidence is in the vicinity of Tru to the north which consisted of an offshore Port complex on caam island linked to the sheltered Coastal Cove in modern day Haan known later as Kuai Chim Port of great champer and the adjacent tubon Valley rice Basin of the modern day Quang namam Province while there are some fifth and sixth Century remains in the sth Century the cam realm was a flourishing multicentered index civilization most of the inscriptions and archaeological evidence from the 5ifth to the eth century so from the areas surrounding Tru which was the political and economic center of the region my son was the Region's most sacred religious Center and Dong dwang was alternately a fortified wall political and Rel gear Center in the earliest era the NH Trang Basin to the South and its Temple Center at po Naga was a secondary Center as was fan rang its 8th Century hoi Temple complex had a Cambodian architectural style that differed from that of the earliest temples at the my son Temple complex to the north this was also the case with the fu high Temple near fan theat even further to the South vicory 2009 47 collectively these differences in architectural Styles reinforce the conclusion that the river mouth centers and their adjacent river systems were autonomous identities making independent adaptations of indic culture fan rang is also the site of the later architecturally distinct 13th to 14th century pooring gar and the very different 16th century po Rome Temple complex a reflection of its prominence as a cam Port of trade in this later era similarly qu Nom near the binden port between Tru and the North and fan rang to the South has Temple towers that date from the 11th to 15th century known at that time as vayia in both Cam and Cambodian inscriptions its temples used the same mixed stone and brick construction techniques as the Contemporary C neighbors but their architectural system is distinct nearby fapman has sculptures of monstrous animals that show Vietnamese Chinese similarities vicory 200948 guy 2009 from south to North the champer realm consisted of what is called pandor aner in the South consisting of fan theat fan rang and sometimes NH Trang which was otherwise known as calara and was the site of the Sacred paga Temple complex to the north was vayia centered in the qu non region variously called cagara caura and Campa Desa Champa country City or region in its inscriptions in the Champa middle was Amara vti which consisted of indrapura the two Bon Valley sites of Tru then known as simura my son and Dong dang which was the center of new Mahayana Buddhist patronage by cam Kings who lived in a walled City from the 9th century following a period in which the region seems to have been marginalized in favor of panga in the late 8th to early 9th centuries this transition of the favored Port of trade polity on the cam coastline is reflected in Chinese sources which had earlier distinguished panger Anga in the south from The Middle hu and Wang the circle of the king I.E indrapura in the earlier century and significantly dropped earlier referances to the collective line for the regions south of the northern Red River provinces that were subject to Chinese sovereignty but from the 9th centy the Chinese called this middle region Zan Chang cam City and devil oped separate tributary relationships with Zan Chang and Huen Wang cam records confirm this division as separate King were ruling from the indrapura central regions of amaravati in the North and the collective pandor Ana NH Trang fan rang Southern regions in the 11th century the NH Trang based King paboda claimed a victory that Consolidated panga authority over the south in the 11th and 12th centuries the southern NH Trang and Northern Tru centered polies began to interact on several levels with their K neighbors to their West notably trade Partners as Overland commercial networking between Anor and the champer realm heightened in the north were the port polities of amarendra Pura centered at L Trung near modern day hu and visura centered at enen bu 19th century French archaeologists were highly impressed with the remains of Cam urbanism and Regional networking as they explored their new Indochina Colony they found primary and secondary centers Linked In the TRU region connected by Road networks on raised embankments paved with stone stone bridges built over canals and urban Ruins 16 ft 5 m high on Stone foundations on a rectangle 984 ft by 1,640 ft 300 by 500 M these were not exclusively military fortresses but protected palaces temples and the general populace Amir 18 91b 21 22 hardi 2009 109 to 10 121 Chinese records substantiate recent archaeological excavations in their descriptions of early cam urbanism in the 6th Century shuy jingju geographical account of China's waterways and those of its Borderlands the author leuan D 527 includes this account of the Fortified cam urban center at hoow Hue near modern day Hue where the ramp Parts over 1.24 mi in length 2,000 m is still visible Hardy 2009 121 the Ram parts were made up of a first brick Foundation 6 Le 170 Paces in C Conference and measuring 650 Paces from east to west this Foundation was 20 ft high above there was a 10t high brick wall wall pierced by squar slits this brick wall was itself toed with a stockade and the entire structure dominated by Pavilion and baders attaining a height of up to 70 to 80 ft the city had 13 Gates all the public buildings open towards the South we counted more than 2,100 residential houses pelot 1904 191 Hardy 2009 108 a 9th century cam inscription describes a secondary town to the larger dong dang Temple Administrative complex the town beded in the Splendor of indris town sparkling with white lotuses founded by beu in ancient times this town called camper keeps here its Invincible Fortune This illustrious Town protected by his majesty Gia syava man whose power unceasing renews its Prosperity this town in prably untied with Good Fortune shines here the king is the shelter of the virtues fot 1904a 109 hardi 2009 108 to9 this cam self image is authenticated in the collection of 9th century sto re circulating in Baghdad collated in the kitab alagani by the Persian scholar Abu Al farage 897 to 967 which describes Buddhist worship at dong dang CA 875 the Indians have in the town of Champa a different Temple from the above this Temple is ancient and all the Buddhas found their enter into conversation with the faithful and rep to all the requests made to them Fon 1913 123 hardi 2009 109 similar to the Contemporary regions of Southeast Asia the cam Temple were equally sustained by meritorious tax-free transfers of income from designated lands that were dedicated to support the temples the referenced Buddhist temple is an example where in a 9th century dong dwang Temple Stell inscription reports King IND dvan gave these fields with their harvests slaves of both sexes silver gold brass copper and other riches to the Divine Lord Shri lxmo varara for the use of the resident monastic community of monks for the completion of the propagation of the Dharma those who Kings KS Atrius brahans Min TS Merchants who remove destroy or these Goods may they all go to mahara hell on the other hand keep them reveal those who have removed them may they all go according to their desire to the city of Heaven and the City of Deliverance fot 1904a a 995 Hardy 2009 109 champer and international Commerce in the 8th Century the cam polies had compelling reasons to assert themselves as Fan's successor in the international commercial channels this Malo austan Shan people ethnically linguistically and culturally related to the maritime regions to their south and east developed into a series of indianized civiliz aans from the second into the 16th century c as cited in Chapter 2 the earliest Chinese references to a cam State date to 19193 CE then and later it appeared in the Chinese records as the state of line but the state own later epigraphy refers to the realm as champer after the champer region of Northeast India with which the chams were in trade and cultural contact for which reason the people are known as chams vicory 1998 48 to 51 64 to 69 guy 2009 128 to 29 caught between the domain of fan to the South and the Chinese province of jai to the north the cam realm's early history was characterized by shifting alliances among Regional centers that were concentrated at the river mouths of the cam Coast a situation not unlike that of The Straits of malaka sagia Realm that will be examined in chapter 4 kides 19 68 17 Stein 1947 in contrast to sagia however the cam realm had major neighbors to its North Jai and West the K realm that would become Anor according to Chinese sources during the early 3rd Century the great fan ruler fan shiman brought the Champs under his authority this report is corroborated by the earliest Sanskrit inscription in cam territories a third century inscript deson that was placed in cam territories and that has been interpreted by historians based on the corresponding Chinese sources to record that Lin was then a networked territory under fan heany the thir Century Sanskrit Stell inscription of V can in the Lin region of NH Trang references the reigning King Shimara who some Scholars argue to be the prominent fan King fan shiman whose consolidations of the fan realm are highlighted in Chinese sources kides 1968 40 gaspan 1965 revisionist historians are now asserting that the L and chinise references was not referential to the entire Champa Coastline but was referential exclusively to the Borderlands south of the Chinese JY province whose population was always a threat to their Northern neighbors as these Borderlands were continuously contested by the chams and Vietnamese over the centuries C chapter 7 reports of the the Chinese envoys Kang Tha and XU Ying who visited fan about the same time arriving there in the 240s say that Fan's ruler whom they call fansan had already established an alliance with the chams around 220 and that together the chams and funes were making Naval raids and land attacks against the coast of the northern Red River Delta Region masaro 1928 54 to 55 about a century later in the mid 300 s the semi-autonomous cam ruler known to the Chinese as fan fo took the Sanskrit title bad Raman devil op DS Sanskrit administrative core and erected the first temples in the cam holy city of my son this Temple City focused on their fictitious Mount vujin the cam equivalent of Mount Maru the Abode of the ancestors almost all the my son temples like elsewhere in the cam realm Center on a core Temple known to cam as a Kalin surrounded by smaller temples almost always cam temples face East from where the sun rises and believe to be the realm of the Gods and where cosmological movement begins here at my son bad rvan consecrated the Shiva linga badr's Vara thereby beginning the cam tradition of assigning to the Poes Central deity the reigning King's Sanskrit name thus proclaiming the monics potential for achieving Divinity upon his death and he reinforced this by the Strategic pairing of the most important cam Royal temples with a specific sacred Mountain mbaro 1928 53 vicory 1998 fun 2009 176 shortly afterward in the fth century the cam realm was an independent entity responding in part to the new circumstances afforded when China's Jin Dynasty rulers encouraged Traders from the southern Seas to trade in Chin's port cam ports became intermediate stops for merchant ships navigating the South China Sea and ships regularly put into Camp ports prior to their entry into China's Harbors this is demonstrated in the fifth century travel itinery of the Indian Prince gav Arman who made a camport stopover sailing from the Java Coast to China Walters 1967 35 according to Chinese accounts perhaps trying to see a continuity of power during the mid fifth century a dynastic crisis in funan resulted in the flight of a fan Prince to Lin where he became king of The chams KES 1931 as noted above the Chinese Throne officially recognized this King fantang in 491 when he was granted the title of General pacifier of the south commanderin-chief of the military Affairs of the seashore and king of Lin masaro 1928 77-78 chapter 2 makes the case that this late fifth century recognition was due to China's perception that fan was no longer the dominant commercial center in the Southeast Asian realm and that ly Regional ports had become the major commercial powers on the lower Vietnam Coast fan Tang's title of pacifier reflected the Chinese Court's view that he was responsible for maintaining control over cam Coast piracy that otherwise threatened international shipping this was done by successfully engaged in the Loyalty of the coastal seamen this cam State's Effectiveness in controlling piracy was intermittent however and in 605 a Chinese General tried to forcibly open the southern Seas region for Commerce most likely seeking to make the cam Coast fit for trade by deterring piracy kidis 1966b 77 according to the Chinese sources the cam State reacted favorably and soon became a secondary entrepot on the main inter National route servicing shipping and sailors traveling between the Malay world and guango at the time a cam Capital was located at traun near present day hoan and by 758 the Chinese reported that the cam state which they mistakenly viewed as a unified polity had also developed secondary commercial centers at calara present day NH Trang and panga present day fan rang as previously noted around around this time the Chinese began to call the cam State H in Wang Wang 1958 90 to 91 according to Chinese sources around 875 a new cam Dynasty came to power at indrapura kangnam and reference in Chinese accounts is henceforth made to Zan Chang the cam City or chapura masaro 19286 the Chinese apparently thought of the cam domain as principally a Mario time State possibly due to its place in their own commercial preoccupations this preoccupation is reflected in the 14th century Anam chilo written by a Vietnamese latak who gives the following brief note on Champa Jang Chen kuo they established the state on the shore of the sea Chinese Merchant ships cross the sea the outer barbarians who come and go all congregate here to take on fuel and water latac 1961 31 Taylor 1983 350 however early cam epigraphy well documents that the cam Downstream River Plains were productive centers of rice agriculture Scholars are currently agreed based on the considerable archaeological work done in the former cam realm over the past 20 years that champer was never a centralized single state except in the minds of the Chinese but instead was a series of variable Network river valleys that sometimes times worked as allies and at other times were in competition Hardy 2009 we know from archaeological and epigraphic evidence that Champa had a river valley focused to its agriculture politically the leader of a cam riverine Network practiced indic inspired statecraft initially drawing legitimacy from Hindu Buddhist Cults that emphasized the cam Kings association with Shiva and his consort badra isvara as with its Anor neighbor to the west chapter 6 temples were often responsible for bringing the lands of the cam political Elites under cultivation socks 1972 60 watch 1998 as was the case with their S vayia and K contemporaries the Naga snake Motif remained a prominent cam visual connection between the indic and Indigenous religious Traditions the Shiva linga was a male Divine figure symbolic of Creative Energy of the celestial Realm seated with legs partly crossed hands on hips on the coils of a Naga or Seated on a five-headed Naga Throne symbolic of natural deities yaka in brahmanical imagery of the Subterranean world of the Naga presided over by the yaka Cava protector of riches and treasures guy 2009 122 FF Gillan 2001 inscription 62 Linger The focal phallic ritual centerpieces in C temples are also a syncretism of the indic and the local the male linger rises from the receptive female Yoni circular bow-like base cam linga are often three tiered as the foundational Hindu Divine Brahma and Vishnu are symbolized and staggered rectangular or Square bases for the culminating rounded penis head of Shiva cam Scholars assert the acceptance of the indic linger as a powerful symbol in local culture as the linger is the tradition male spiritual Force ah and the Yoni is the female a war which together are the two most powerful Jewel I creative forces in the cam animistic realm this male female Duality is also the basis of the ritual relationship between the most sacred my son indrapura and paga vayia Temple complexes my son was the sanctuary of the god Shiva male father while paga was the sanctuary of the goddess of Po enua female mother Nakamura 2009 103 by the 7th and e8th centuries the cam realm had evolved a loose balance between its wet rice economy and its participation in the internal trade an important factor necessitating this balance was the fact that the cam Coast was by then strategically located on the principal Maritime route between the sagia malaka Straits based realm and China a position that allowed the chams the opportunity to take advantage of the economic benefits offered by participation in the trade is the trade heightened in the Tang and Song eras 6181 1279 in doing so to some degree champer and here ited the intreo position filled in earlier Centuries by fan to the South though it was s vayia that assumed the primary Emporium role maintaining this position generally from the 7th Century until the 11th century in the eyes of the Chinese Champa though important was ultimately a region of intermediary ports the last stopover between sagia and China before ships reached China's ports of trade in time however the cam realm would become increasingly important as a source of Commodities desired by the Chinese Elite hardi 2009 a rare oblique reference to external Commerce comes from 8th Century cam inscriptions reporting two sea raids that threatened the state's very existence a Sanskrit inscription from NH Trang informs us that in 774 in ferocious pous dark-skinned men born in other countries whose food was more horrible than corpses and who were vicious and Furious came in ships took away the temple linger and set fire to the temple thus Des creating the paga temple near NH Trang in the calara region bth and berain 1885 to 1893 200 53 this was followed by a second raid by a similar group in 787 when a panga Temple to the South was burned Amir 1900 to 1904 191 B and berain 1885 to 1893 217 the desecration of these temples represented the destruction of the cam King's legitimacy and in the first of these raids the Temple's sacred linger was taken away the PO Naga Temple inscription recording this event reports that the cam King followed with his Navy and defeated the Raiders in a sea Battle he was unable to recover the original linger which was said to have been lost in the battle but he used the booty acquired from the defeated Marauders to reconstruct the damaged Temple where he installed a replacement linger the symbol of his legitimacy bar and berain 1885 to 1893 253 history orians have traditionally identified these darkskinned and demonic Raiders with Javanese or Malay Sailors though they are most likely a multiethnic group similar to the Malo austronesian sea Nomads who were the strength behind sag's hegemony see chapter 4 but you were also a maritime diaspora active along the entire Cam and Vietnam Coastline these sea Nomads were seasonally resident Oceano sojourners who could be used by local rulers to control shipping but who in times of political turmoil might turn to piracy as the source of their livelihood Walters 1967 1970 it is notable that the two referenced raids were directed at the southernmost of the cam regions the two Port areas recognized by the Chinese as being of greatest commercial importance in that time the maritime raids therefore reflect three possible conditions first the sagia state may have seen the rise of the camp ports as a threat to its economic hegemony bth and berain 1885 to 1893 252 alternatively if s AIA was not such a powerful force at this particular time as some historians have proposed then the raids on the camp horts may have been undertaken by the very sea Pirates Who in more settled times might have supported sag's control over the sou Seas but who now would have seen Camp ports as attractive sources of plunder Bronson and wisman 1976 a third possibility is that the attack could have been mounted by Rebel Seaman based in the variety of settlements along the lower cam coast and numerous offshore islands champer and international Commerce in the 10th and 11th centuries after these eight8 Century records there is little documentary evidence of the cam realm's commercial activities until the 11th century when several inscriptions supported by Chinese records allow further consideration of the cam relationship with intern National Commerce moreover we know a good deal about champa's internal structure during this period champa's multi-centered civilization was distributed among several river valleys and their Upstream Highlands Each of which was separated from the others by rugged mountains in this regard the state's geographical features were similar to those of the earliest multiple riverine system polities in the Straits of malaka region yet despite this similarity to sria the cam polity also resembled contemporary Java chapter 5 in that its river systems had settled down streams that were adjacent to fertile Upstream centers that lay between the coast and the Upstream Highlands as the downstream produced sufficient rice surpluses to support the expenses of network temples by contrast as described in chapter 4 the internal economic and political development of the sagia realm was hampered by its Region's extensive down stream swamps champa's economic and religious networks reinforce their multiple river systems upstream and downstream cultural and economic linkage while also proclaiming the legitimacy of their calite patrons Quark langlet 1988 28 to 37 by the 10th century champer was divided into five core regions the northern region that barded Vietnamese territory which had Port sites known as amarendra Pura lrang hu and and visura N andb was a narrow Sandy Coastal plane of scattered agricultural settlements that was punctuated by numerous short streams connecting the coast with its mtanous interior Amar ravity Incorporated the earlier indrapura middle region this was the site of the important port now known as Haan Redfern 2002 watchel 1998 wheeler 2001 its multiple short fertile river valleys were sealed by steep mountain ridges a geography affording the security necessary for the development of the local wet rice works that supported these early religious and political complexes Amar ravi's prior leadership was superseded in the 12th and 13th Centuries by its Southern neighbor vayia which developed Overland links with the evolving Chim realm of Anor which used VJ as Port now known as Shri banoi shoi is a point of contact with the South sea international trade is an Overland Road Network connected the KEH Heartland with the Western cam Highland region and from there via Upstream river valleys to the coast continuing Southward the fourth region was calara which was situated in a narrow Coastal strip with little agricultural Hinterland between the rugged mountains and the rocky Sea Coast but which also developed Overland commercial and cultural connections to the K Heartland via sambura on the mikong river though the topography was less hospitable for large-scale agriculture it had several Bays notably NH Trang and cam ran that afforded accommodation for assorted Maritime communities here too was the important early cult site of paga to Kara's South lay the fifth region panga fan rang which had a mixed economy based on hydraulic agriculture salt production and fishing this mixed economy in distance allowed panga to enjoy a degree of autonomy from its northern neighbors the five core regions were surrounded by border zones in each of three directions on the Northern periphery of the core was the inayan region which was long contested between the Vietnamese and the northern cam polies although the chams occasionally raided into this Borderland they verily controlled it to the west of the core was an autonomous region of mountains and Highland plateau now known as the central Highlands populated by an assortment of Highland tribal populations some of whom were closely related to the chams Quark langlet 1988 37 to 42 hickey 1982 78 to 120 to the south of the core was the sparsely populated Mong Delta Region occupied largely by a mixture of chams and KEH which served as a buffer zone between the chams and the Upstream region controlled by strong C polies brochet 1995 1 to1 the northern border Zone was especially significant during the 10th and 11th centuries when there was ongoing hostility between the chams and the emerging Vietnamese States after it had won its independence from chines Authority see below while this chapter attributes Vietnamese cam Warfare to commercial competition and to compensatory aggression Keith Taylor's studies of 11th century Vietnam provide an alternative interpretation attributing the Vietnamese raids on champer to competition over settlement of the agriculturally rich Frontier regions that lay between settled Cam and dvet territories Taylor 1983 297 Taylor 1986 there were likely elements of both in the Vietnamese Chronicles retrospective view the Warfare in the South was of secondary consequence to the Vietnamese who were more concerned with their need to defend the dvet state's newly won autonomy in Northern borders from the Chinese in Taylor's view as this cussed below recurrent Vietnam champer conflict resulted from competition to settle and control this productive agricultural Frontier agricultural expans took priority over International Commerce as the dvet monarchy attempted to conform to the cynic agricultural State Prejudice an increasingly important element of these hostilities was the use of Naval Warfare Vietnamese responded to two major cam Naval campaigns as well as using Naval Warfare to enhance their own trade interests on the coastline in 979 a naval Expedition attributed to the chams said to have been led by a rebellious Vietnamese attacked the Vietnamese capital of hoalu in the Red River delta according to the Vietnam Chronicle account only the cam King's vessel survived a gale on the fleet's return Voyage Mass 1910 678 in response the Vietnamese destroyed the cam capital of indrapura in 982 cam raids against the northern Vietnam Coast in 1042 again brought retaliatory action against the cam Capital at vay the Vietnamese Emperor Li ta Tong led a 1042 Seaborn Expedition that was said to have rooted the chams killed their King gim havan 2 and returned with five th sand prisoners who were resettled in new agricultural villages in the southern Borderlands of the LI domain kyes 1966b 83 raids against dvet were not the only source of conflict in 1050 for example a cam inscription recorded a cam Royal Expedition against the southern cam Port of panduranga the people of this port were described as vicious threatening and always in revolt against their Sovereign and they refused used to recognize the cam ruler's Authority Amir 1891 b29 fot 1 193b 634 643 1909 205 28 at the time panga had a significant commercial presence as to Arabic script kuek inscriptions D in between 1029 and 1035 document that pangang there was a major port with a sizable commercial Community possibly some 300 strong Raves 1,922 manguin 1979 the inscriptions also suggest Panera's degree of political Independence one of them records that this community selected one of its members a Muslim as agent of the bazaar having the duty of representing and protecting local Merchants interests when dealing with Cam authorities the latter inscription is not the first reference to Muslim traders in the cam realm an earlier mention appears in a 10th Century Chinese Court reference to a 958 diplomatic mission to China by a Muslim named Abu Hassan Buu hosan who was traveling as the Ambassador representing the cam King in dvan III on this trip he presented the Chinese emperor rose water flasks of Greek Fire and precious stones T Saka 1952 52 in 961 Abu Hassan again traveled to the song Court this time bearing a letter from the new cam King gyen dvan the First on this second occasion the cam Ambassador presented the song monik with fragrant wood Ivory Campa peacocks and 20 Arab vases all items from Arabia Persia and other Western regions that were supposedly available in Camp ports as commercial products schaer 1967 75 Abu Hassan's visits were a response to the opportunities afforded when guango was fully reopened to foreign Commerce under the later Joe 951 to 959 and then the song 9601 1279 dynasties this commercial activity by Muslims and others was profitable to the cam realm Chinese sources from the song era reveal that ship cargos were inspected by King's agent upon arrival in champers ports after registering all Commodities carried by the ship and noting how many goods were unloaded the king's agents collected 1th of each kind of commodity in the name of their monic before authorizing the sale of the rest concealed and undisclosed Freight was seized M Barrow 1928 29 the income from these inspections financed various Royal activities not the least of which was cam ambition for military conquest especially against the D Viet n BS to the north who were seen as both a political and economic threat however the Vietnamese were also experiencing increased trade and were doing so in direct competition with champer there were two primary avenues for this trade the first an interior trade route connecting Vietnam with the CH realm to its West was an especially serious threat to cam trading notably with their kamare neighbors in the 10th and 11th centuries the Overland trade route from the Vietnamese inan region ran West through the Harry pass and turned South along the Mong River into the Kam Heartland mbaro 1918 cimar inscriptions describe traders of Vietnam sa origin using this route the development of this Overland route is likely to have been especially threatening to Camp ports which were linked to the kar Heartland either by riverine Links or more likely by Overland trade across the central Highlands for example V was linked to the K Heartland via an Overland network via the Highland Center of con claw where there are a cam Temple and epigraphic and archaeological remains from this era that substantiate this Overland cultural and trade connection a cimar inscription dated 987 kides IC 6 to 183 - 86 mentioning Vietnamese use of the Interior route found at f mean on the lower mikong documents this threat demonstrating that camp ports were then bypassed entirely with negative consequence to champer Ports a 1050 panga Naval raid up the mikong river into the K Heartland sacking sambura on the Mong may have been more than a plunder raid but was potentially intended to reassert its trade relationship with the CH realm Osborne 1966 449 any war with the north was likely popular with the cam commercial community to reclaim lost territories in the north to plunder the region and take back captives for cam slave markets and to work cam lands and also to destroy commercial Port competition on the D Viet Coastline champer sea mounted attacks on Vietnam could have drawn on ethnically diverse peoples most prominently on a relationship with Maritime sojourners based in cam Coastline ports as was noted earlier the Chinese had continuously depicted the cam Coast as a center of disorder and piracy as well as a source of slaves since earliest times Whitmore 1986 121 to 22 however as will be described in the chapter 4 discussion of sagia these very same Pirates could sometimes be turned to the service of the state the champer realm was clearly a naval power in this period a 9th century camar inscription for example refers to a victory over thousands of barks with white sails a Navy that historians attribute to the chams kides 1968 114 bth and berain 1885 to 1893 492 and3 the source of 10th and 11th century cam Maritime strength must have come from populations similar to those who in the 8th Century had pillaged the cam Coast that is the sojourning seaf farers indeed a relationship with multiethnic sojourners or at least with peoples from the southern islands is suggested by the Javanese influence upon cam culture from at least the 9th century onward this influence is most visible in cam Temple architecture of the 9th Kent at my son and elsewhere Stern 1942 guy 2009 147 to 49 there is also a two-part cam inscription from En and bu visura north of modern day Hue dated 98 to 911 which reports two official diplomatic missions to Java Yad Vier by a favorite of the cam monic Gia simhan Huber 1911 299 on the other side of the sea Java inscriptions from this late 9th and 10th Century period make specific reference to the regular activities of both Kamar and cam merchants in Java's ports as there are also cimar inscriptions that reference their Java contacts whs and christe 1998a 244 kidis 1968 93 97 to 98 100 fot 1915 hyim 2001 59 this Japanese contact no doubt equally attracted sojourning Traders and seaf farers to cam ports making him available for various Maritime Expeditions against the prosperous contemporary Vietnamese domain to the north though this first raid benefited the cam State relative to plunder and Manpower returns continuing hostilities resulted in Vietnamese reprisals kidis 1968 139 to4 in the retaliatory Vietnamese attack of 982 the cam Capital at indrapura was destroyed as a result between 982 and 1050 the southern cam domain including the port of pangang and its seering groups were the beneficiaries as is evidenced by the two Arabic script inscriptions cited above dated 1029 and 1035 Sea farers from panga as well as those associated with each of the other enumerated ports associated with the other cam coastal regions were likely participants in a major cam Naval Expedition against the Vietnamese in 1042 indeed it is quite possible that a number of the naval raids attributed to the chams during this period were initiated not by a royal Center but by semi-independent piratical sojourners who used Camp ports as their base of operation masaro 1928 29 whatever the case the Vietnamese held the cam centers responsible for the attacks and aimed their retaliation accordingly both in the earlier instance and in this one in the earlier case the cam Capital at indrapura Tru was destroyed in the present case as noted in 1044 the LIE mounted a return Expedition at an unspecified Northern cam Center to vent their wroth upon the chams and killed the cam King the paga temple in calara just north of panduranga gives us a cam perspective on these events we already saw the 8th Century incription that referred to the 774 desecration of this Temple by dark-skinned people from the sea a subsequent po nager inscription described this 1050 expedian by the cam King against panga this latter inscription noted that the king celebrated the restoration of his authority over panga by rebuilding the sacred paga Temple complex and assigning slaves Kar Chinese men of Pam Pagan Burma and th SI to the temple Amir 1891 b 29 these slaves were most probably War captives who had formerly been residents of panga in the case of the tyan burmes having come to be in this cam Marketplace via trade from someplace else since champer ports were widely recognized inish shinali for their slave markets it is likely that such War captives from aari ET of sources would normally have been marketed in cam Coast ports and that some of these slaves were present among panga Maritime community at the time of its subjugation to calara equally likely the calara Monarch's victory over panga allowed him to enslave the conquered population which would have included the enumerated members of the multiethnic maritime sojourning community that had fought on Panera's behalf the cam realm sent three embassies to China between 1050 and 1056 and 5 to the LI Viet Capital between 1047 and 1060 masaro 1928 138 to39 this flurry of diplomacy after 1050 is best characterized as an assurance to the Chinese and the Vietnamese that the cam Monarch now had his domain firmly under control including panger anger and its marauding seaf farers as well as also an assurance to his powerful neighbors that his aggression against the CH realm would have no negative consequence to them nevertheless when a cam Army launched a land attack against the LI in 1068 and dvit responded with a naval attack against the cam capital at vayia the Vietnamese found it remarkable that they met resistance only from a cam Army and not from a cam Fleet indication that at that time the cam ruler did not have sufficient Naval forces to take on his 1068 campaign M Barrow 1928 141 to 42 whatever had enabled the king to attract seaf farers in 1050 those tools had become ineffective champa's political economy of competition champer was a culturally integrated yet multicentered polity like its contemporary Southeast Asian civilizations champer left impressive Temple complexes and numerous inscriptions composed in both Sanskrit and the cam language which are the main source for early cam history yet based on the surviving evidence Champa State systems were weakly institutionalized and dependent on ritual and personal Alliance networks to integrate their geographically fragmented populations we have already noted the multiple cam Royal centers capitals at several rivermouth Urban centers bearing indic titles first NH Trang in the Southward section of calara was prominent then in 875 it was in indrapura Tru in the north central region which by 982 was the inclusive amori based on cam inscriptions and archaeological sources rather than Chinese dynastic records historians now conclude that there was never a single continuous cam State rather than representing shifts from one Dynasty's rule to that of another one river systems Elite periodically became more promy NS and those of other River mouth Port polities of the cam Coast as such the cam polities were more like the Malay riverine and archipelago States characterized in chapters 1 and four than like its Mainland wet rice plain n BS to the west and north and as with the rulers of the archipelago riverine based political economies the authority of a cam monik was concentrated within his own rivermouth plane while beyond that rivermouth Port polity base the monik sovereignty depended on his ability to construct Alliance networks with the leaders of the populations in his Upstream hinter land as well as with those of the cam Coast's rival riverine systems there was an important difference however for unlike most of The Straits of Mala polies the cam Coastal centers had immediately adjacent networked productive agricultural communities that could be self-sufficient while also supplying the basic needs of the cam ruling Elite and their sustenance of the cam Temple networks and Royal centers thus the cam realm that had emerged by 1,000 CE had much in common both with the Malay polies of sagia chapter 4 and with its contemporaries in East Java chapter 5 and their Kar neighbors to their West chapter 6 possessing the river mouth orientation of the Malay polies and the agricultural Hinterlands of java and Anor the cam polies Hinterlands were not nearly as extensive as those of East Java and Anor and overall had less production capacity furthermore Java's political centers were located upstream and were therefore better insulated from the threat of coastal raids while the cam political centers were constantly subject to the raids of both their River inner neighbors and their diat neighbors to the North and the to the South and West throughout the periodic fluctuations of Cam River mouth centers there was one constant the cam sacred centers at my son and paga located on the edge of the Highlands and up River from the cam Port polity centers in Hoy in and NH Trang respectively which served as the Locust of Cam Royal ceremony that promoted a sense of cultural homogeneity among the disperate populations of the cam realm thus although cam Society was weakly linked instit Ally it was United by Common cultural values and a mutual ritual core in addition the communal values expressed in champa's widely distributed inscriptions demonstrate a level of societal integration reinforced by cam ritual networks that provided the foundation for a funtional cam polity watchel 1998 John Whitmore has recently argued the importance of the need for protect Tian as the motivation for early cam political development in reaction to political developments to the north among the Vietnamese and to the West among the KEH Whitmore 2010b he notes in support of this view that the earliest cam inscriptions after first reporting successions to the throne focus on the capacity of a monarch to defend his realm and then detail the supernatural qualities that allow him to establish or reaffirm local Cults to achieve a cosmic partnership with a supreme deity especially with Shiva according the earliest inscriptions are usually linked with specific temples and their Cults as for example the great Cult of sambu vadr VAR based at my son which according to an inscription found there protected nagara champer according to this inscription the king and the goddess of the cult lived in a symbiotic relationship calling for their Mutual protection May the king protect you in order to rule the cam people may the goddess of sovereignty in her turn always protect him as also to protect these Riches of the temple maima 1927 incription 31 just as the Monarch was enjoined here to protect the cult so to the cam Kings declared themselves Protectors of the entire realm erecting Stone Steels inscribed with proclamations of their capacity to protect all the cam people for example that King IND rvan II 875 CA 898 was equal in prowess to Vishnu who protected without fear the kingdom of Champa maima 1927 inscription 43 kides 1968 122 to 23 and skillful in protecting Champa mauma 1927 inscription 45 his successor Jia simar man CA 898 CA 9 three protect Ed the entire world and especially protect Ed his subjects by his strength maima 1927 inscription 46 an inscription of paramar veran i d 982 asserted at its beginning that he was the protector of champer and went on to detail his role in providing protection from the KEH kambo and in protect in the 10 regions from Fear a phrasing that also reflected the composite nature of the cam realm majima 1927 inscriptions 52 to 53 an inscription of the following mourn arj haravan CA 1081 declared that he was the protector of champer maima 1927 inscription 62 while in another case an underaged success saw was removed from the throne and replaced by a veteran Warrior on the grounds that the former was incapable of providing the necessary defense mauma 1927 inscription 65 whitmore's study of early cam kingship speculates that by the 12th century cam Kings had a more stable style of networking than in earlier times Whitmore 2010b ultimately however the successful ruler had to generate income for his direct subordinates and secure material well-being for his subjects whenever economic Prosperity was lost serious question arose regarding the successful magical qualities of the ruler's Cults and in such situations the autonomy of regional units soon would be reasserted in fact throughout champa's history periodic Regional autonomy and resistance to the centralizing Ambitions of would be cam monics were coincident with an inability to provide expected economic returns as we have just seen according to cam inscriptions the king's place was not in the palace managing the day-to-day affair of his state but in the battlefield protecting his subject communities and thereby securing their Prosper it this is signal not only by the references to the cam King as protector but also by the administrative functions that are left out of the records cam monics are never referenced in records of local Water Management nor did they assume a role as supervisors of communal granaries which together with the local Water Management networks were the source of unity among Local Peasant communities they were not entirely aloof from these Arrangements however as they did periodically assign the responsibility for the supervision of new or existing public granaries to newly established temples watchel 1998 inscriptions report that in return for securing his subject's Prosperity the cam monik was entitled to receive one6 of local agricultural prodution but they also repeatedly proclaimed that due to the rulers benevo lens the state expected to collect only one tenth since such references appear in inscriptions reporting transfers of the ruler remaining income rights on property to Temples which like in Anor and Java will signify can centers for the concentration of economic resources it can be inferred that the state was either unwilling or unable to collect a share of local productin even in its own river system base and thus assigned its token on10th share in the hope that a temple an institution with local roots might have better luck making such collections what were normally assigned were income rights to uncultivated and unpopulated lands further indication that the state had only limited rights over cultivated lands Manpower War cap ties or other bondsmen and bonds women was frequently assigned to support the extension of Agriculture under the direction of a temple and its staff such consolidation of control over land and existing gran and their assignment to Temples provided indirect access to local production that was otherwise inaccessible to the state and in turn temples promoted the king's sovereignty in their religious cults thereby providing cam Kings with symbolic rather than direct material dividend C chapter 5 there is an inconsistency between the inscriptions stress on the ruler moral and physical prowess and their conclusion that this prowess was insufficient to guarantee the future security of endowed temples camon scripts continually use curses to protect temples rather than threatening a monics physical retribution against offenders while they glorify the physical capacity and personal heroism of Cam rulers they normally end with the proclamation that those who plunder temples which given the consistent references to the practice would seem to have been a common occurrence would be subject to divine retribution normally a shortened and unprosperous life and the certainty of Hell in the afterlife one sit andow meant inscription ends with the following fairly typical warning those who protect all these Goods of Indra Badr VAR in the world will enjoy the Delights of Heaven along with the gods those who carry them away will fall into hell together with their family and will suffer the Sorrows of hell as long as the sun and moon endure bath and burgain 1885 to 1893 226 FF such statements give the impression that even during a king's Reign and especially after his death his territory and notably his richly endowed temp P were subject to pillage by his various political Rivals it is not surprising then that the inscriptions of Cam monik should so frequently report the restoration of the temples of previous cam rulers temples were especially vulnerable to the Demonic foreigners who attempted to plunder local mate real resources and labor acts of restoration were statements of Royal legit Macy proclamations that the new monarch had sufficient resources to guarantee his subjects and ATT temples future livelihood since champer possessed an extensive Coastline an alternative source of income for cam monic was the sea there was certainly potential for trade income during the Summers monsoon winds propelled sea traffic north to China while from the Autumn to the spring winds from the north made the cam Coast a natural landfall for the merchants traveling south to the archipelago and Beyond though Chinese sources always considered Camp ports to be secondary centers of international commercial exchange they did have important products that Chinese and other International Traders desired notably luxury items such as Ivory rhinoceros horn tortoise shell pearls peacock and king fisher feathers spices and aromatic Woods including Eaglewood Mas Sparrow 1928 29 Wade 2010 Lee 2006 Hardy 2009 Chinese and Vietnamese sources say a good deal about these Commodities many of which came to the cam Coast from the mountainous Hinterland elephants and their tusks for example were highly desirable and 14 times were included among the tribute gifts cam monic sent to the chenes court between 414 and 1050 Hardy 2 9 115 these elephants came from the Highland regions up River from amavi hyen calara NH Trang and panga fan rang rhinoceros horns ground rhinoceros horn is a prized aphrodiziac among the Chinese cardamum beeswax laca resins and scented Woods Sandalwood camper wood and eagle or allows wood came from the same Upstream region masaro 1928 57 67 87 to 88 99 120 133 138 as for ARA nuts and Beetle leaves the chewing of which gave teeth a distinctive red color they came from the highlands U River from indrapura TRU while cinnamon was a product of the region U River from V bined in and gold was said to be mined at a moontain of gold some 30 Le from Hue in the amaravati region Highland oral histories provide valuable insight into the nature of Cam commercial exchange which is ignored in all the local ryth and sources focused as they on political and religious activities as they relate to Temples rather than on Champa commercial activities indeed such early lowland Highland exchanges are rarely referenced anywhere in Southeast Asia Legends told among Highlanders near CH Ario in the Dak dalik Plateau region substantiate that the highlands were the source of the trade items enumerated in external sources they also report that the chams attempted to integrate Highlanders into the political economy by negotiation rather than by force offering the protection of the cam armies and the privilege of becoming the chams trade Partners hickey 19826 in turn the cam monarchs were entitled to receive locally woven cloth as tribute hickey 1982 446 apparently the most valuable of the trade Commodities offered by the downstream based chams was salt which was critical to the Highland diet and in local animal husbandry Hardy 2009 115 among the Highland populations in the panga region north of the Mong Delta the local headmen were said to have organized a band of men to assist the chams in the search for Eaglewood value for its fragrance when burned in cam Vietnamese and Chinese rituals tribal Legends report that local leaders became cam vassals and received a cam saber and seal and a title that roughly translated to Lord master and thereby confirmed their Leed Earthship status hickey 1982 117 also important were the coastal populations the maritime sojourners who sometimes provided navies and yet who sometimes engaged in piracy the Chinese Court was always trying in vain to compel cam monics to assume responsibility for the behavior of the coastal populations judging from the frequency of Chinese demands it would seem that this Coastal population was only marginally under the cam monic control cam Coast piracy was widely known among the international trade Community International voyages were often warned to avoid the cam Coast when traveling from the Mala Straits region to China this weakened the appeal of Cam ports to International Traders while some of this piracy was motivated by sea populations acting on their own some of it may also have been organized directly by the cam State as part of a self- sustaining social economy of plunder wheer 2006 being unable to secure sufficient Revenue income from their subordinate River Valley agricultural communities or consistent return from internal or external trade cam monx had to seek alternative sources to finance the alliance networks that were critical to their sovereignty plundering raids were therefore waged on a regular basis both against rival River mouth population centers on the cam coast and also against champa's neighbors particularly the C to the west and the Vietnamese to the north these raids are reported not only in cam epigraphy but also in Vietnamese Chronicles and from the 10th Century onward in inscriptions from the Kam realm in local cam in scripts these raids are honored as demonstrations of the cam ruler's capacity to protect his realm a good offense was considered a good defense and also for the resulting material and human resources that were then redistributed among cam temples and among the monik supporters the latter included both the coastal populations and the various warriors who figure so prominently in cam epigraphy as the Monarch's principal political allies this Dynamic of plunder explains why cam history is dominated by seemingly constant military Expeditions not only did this plunder in the form of goods and captured labor help bind together the internal realm it also provided a source of external income for cam ports were widely known as a major source of slaves that is war captives who were traded there to various international buyers Hardy 20094 Lee 2006 Mas Barrow 1928 6 to 17 3034 furthermore in addition to helping the cam monics validate their local cultural image as the source of their subjects well-being successful plundering Expeditions provided the Practical resources particularly labor for rewarding Warriors and other key participants who in turn strengthened the temple networks C inscriptions suggest that supporters of successful Expeditions were often assigned jurisdiction over land that was either undeveloped or needed Redevelopment in turn suggest the inscriptions these supporters acted immediately to strengthen the local temple networks for one of their first acts was the lavish endowment of temples whose staff subsequently assumed supervision of the Land Development projects thus local development was itself rooted in the political economy of plunder as the warrior Elite donated or redistributed a portion of the objects money and slave labor one in such successful Royal Expeditions bth and berain 1885 to 1893 218 275 the endowment of temples in newly redeveloped territory had economic social and symbolic value for Royal subordinates Sanctified their development projects by instituting lingers and establishing new temples that not only honored the Temple's benefactor but also proclaimed the glory of past and present cam monarchs for whom the temple lingers were named this promoted local appreciation of the Mon's accomplishments and encouraged local subordination to the cam State sovereignty even in the absence of the kind of administrative structure that was being developed in the Contemporary cim realm to its West chapter 6 and the Vietnam polity to its North see below watch 1998 the early cam realm May thus be understood as a loose and marginally interdependent networked polity that Inc compassed a series of politically linked rivermouth Urban centers and their UPR River Hinterlands lacking a resource based sufficient to support their political aspirations if not responding to threats from their camar and Vietnamese neighbors by the 11th century some cam Kings by necessity launched periodic military expedian to acquire plunder that could be redistributed both directly by sharing booty with their Warrior allies and indirectly via Temple endowments made by those allies for these Arrangements were necessary if the monarchs were to maintain the Loyalty of the leaders of the local inhabitants cam monik maintained the Loyalty of their direct Military Allies by keeping him in the field on various plunder Expeditions lacking a royal Administration that could directly control the various regions of the cam realm cam monarchs instead depended on the willingness of local Elites to recognize their so a via participation in Expeditions of conquest and by support of local religious cults that proclaimed the ruler's Superior prowess while these Arrangements might sustain the cam state for a while they also fostered an inherent vulnerability in the realm's political economy notably to retaliatory attacks we have seen some of this instability in the fluctuating histories of the Realms capitals as we will see in chapters 7 and N the inherent vulnerability of the economy of plunder would eventually lead first to the demise of the camp I ities consequent to Vietnamese expansion supported by a successful mix of agricultural productivity and overseas trade the development of the D Viet political economy the widely held notion that Vietnam has never been anything other than a reflection of China is no longer taken seriously today early Vietnam is described as a unique Society straddling the southern border of China the rise of the Vietnamese civilization as a linguistic cultural and political entity is however deeply indebted to the prolonged association between the inhabitants of the Red River delta and their neighbors immediately to the north collectively known to the Chinese as the UA who were a variety of ethnic populations inhabiting the mountains of South China and its Borderlands but Vietnam's southern and western connections with populations on the Southeast Asian mainland cannot be ignored this includes the chams and malaise who shared the South China Sea coastline Vietnamese traits such as tattooing Beatle chewing a pluralistic concept of ancestry and the use of a material culture distinctive to the Southeast Asian local bear witness to connections with Vietnam's non- cynic Southern neighbors Taylor 1983 located on the border of both the Chinese and the Southeast Asian Realms Vietnam Drew from both cultures yet belong to neither no other Southeast Asian population exper experienced centuries of Chinese rule as the Prelude to the foundation of their own independent political existence in the post 10th Century era independent Vietnam polies repeatedly rebuffed the advancing armies of their neighbors Chinese armies of the song Yuan and Ming dynasties each unsuccessfully attempted to reannexation periodically tried to plunder d v its wealth and carry off its Manpower in premodern times early Vietnamese civilization moved spatially from higher Upland areas of the Red River Valley into the Delta Region and then South into previous cam territory in the second Millennium C early Vietnamese Society consisted of small communal groups who farmed the area above the Delta using the natural e and flow of the tides of the Red River system to support local irrigation networks Taylor 1983 1 to 44 but by the 10th Century Vietnamese Society was based in villages and had developed a laborade dyke and drainage systems to control the Raging Monsoon fed Waters of the Red River delta Staples of Vietnamese life were Fish and Rice 12th Century Chinese writers report that the Vietnamese grew the special early ripening strain of rice that had come into Vietnam from champer although an indigenous type was preferred Whitmore 1986 130 early Chinese iCal interest in Vietnam included Han ruler's desire to secure their southern Borderlands and Southern trade routes to gain access to International luxury goods Taylor 1983 78 hanera outposts in Vietnam at the beginning of the first Millennium were primarily commercial centers rather than fortified military or governmental capitals Han rulers never demonstrated an elaborate administrative commitment to their Jai jjo Province Vietnam was viewed as being too remote in the symbolic early 1st Century C Han era political order the pre- chinese vietnamese lack Lord Elite remained in charge they remitted tribute especially rare objects and valuable consumables and in return received seals and ribbons from their hand overlords that legitimized their collections from their dependence and in theory added prestige in the eyes of their peers the Lac Elite was more or less allowed to rule in traditional ways while although there were attempted modifications to aspects of their social system that the Chinese found inconsistent with the Chinese sense of morality notably their disregard for Chinese style patriarchal marriage and their preference for the bilateral kinship patterns practiced throughout the Southeast Asian region the lack Lords enjoyed the labor services and the share of the local Agricultural and craft production which was supplied by their subject client communities Taylor 1983 45 to 84 during Wang mang's first century China interlude 923 CE Han ruling class refugees reinforced the authority of the local Han officials and new patterns of Chinese rule evolved in the aftermath in 40ce trun trens map 3.2 Vietnam CA 100 1200 Trung and he Daughters of a lack Lord LED an uprising against the restoration of Han Authority and temporarily drove Han administrators out of Northern Vietnam and parts of southern China the Han general maruan captured and beheaded the sisters in 42 to 43 local Legend differs from the official Chinese sources reporting that to avoid capture and certain execution the sisters hero a committed suicide this rebellion was the final attempt of the prean Vietnamese ruling class to resist Chinese Authority and subsequently Han author it over Vietnam became more direct from that time forward lack Lords were no longer mentioned and the dong Sun civilization had ended by the conclusion of the 2 Century the trun sisters Rebellion reflects the importance of women in early Vietnamese if not wider Southeast Asian Society since many of the lack Clan leaders who followed the trun sisters were also women subsequently the spirits of the sisters and many of their female generals were honored as early Vietnam Patriots and are still woried in various Vietnam Villages today Chinese administrators especially address their need to pay for their expanded Administration to cover the additional expenses they began to develop the local agrarian economy as a stable tax base Chinese administrators promoted greater productive efficiency as well as the extension of Agriculture into previously uncultivated lands to support their objectives they encouraged trans transition to a formal patriarchal society as a way to increase the role of men in agricultural production which had traditionally been performed by women as women's work hunting and fishing were the focus of male economic activity but produced no taxable Surplus settled agriculture was a predictable source of tax revenues this society in which men were predominantly hunters and fishermen seemed from the Chinese perspective to have no stable family system the male role in agriculture or the lack thereof and the apparent female control of cultivation were difficult for chines administrators to accept one Han official tried to combat this by ordering all men aged 20 to 50 to marry the would be elite were expected to pay for Chinese style marriage ceremonies subsequent registration of new family units made kin groups responsible for tax payments the Vietnamese responded to Newan post-rebellion initiative but not as the Chinese expected instead of becoming an agrarian society Comfort ably settled in one place Vietnamese retained the frontier Spirit of their preuse hunting culture Vietnamese readily moved into and developed previously uncultivated lands this Mobility supported periodic Chinese and subsequent Vietnamese government efforts to extend wet rice cultivation into new territories similar to Chinese Society Vietnamese possession of land Rights was considered essential for the well-being of a family and for the continuation of the family line Suns needed to have land to keep the fam ILY unit together and readily extended cultivation into previously uncultivated land to enhance their fam's Collective income family property and family ancestor Cults were mutually interdependent substantial houses that would endure for Generations rather than makeshift dwellings become the norm ancestor Spirit houses were also constructed with a central Sanctuary honing ancestors of the paternal Line This was the center of family rituals and feasting Stone tombs too were reminders of generations past neglected unnourished ancestral Spirits became hostile untrustworthy spirits that wandered endlessly in search of offerings designated cult lands collectively farmed by members of the family lineage Supply income to finance rituals and feasts meant to acknowledge ancestors who in turn were expected to reciprocate by bestowing Good Fortune on the living the head of the kin group usually the oldest male was the guardian over the ancestor rituals Taylor 1986 Vietnam's Elite had previously built Spirit shrines din for the guardian deities of local agricultural fertility and also ancestral shrines to honor past generations of locally based class Han bureaucrats viewed traditional Vietnamese landholding patterns which were based on communal usage rather than family ownership is incompatible with their desire to establish new Statewide Revenue systems based on private ownership Han era land taxation in Vietnam was unorthodox and underwent constant Evolution since It ultimately depended on the personal skill of the Chinese bureaucrat the system was inherently vulnerable to personal greed and Corruption the Chinese government would on occasion police itself as for example when two officials were executed for extorting bribes and filling a storehouse with improperly seized possessions which were subsequently redistributed among local Court officials Taylor 1983 59 Han soldiers settled in newly built wall outposts to govern new administrative prefectures and districts and to negate the attempts of the old La aristocracy to stand in their way by their itions that they held hereditary rights over all previously uncultivated property Soldier Farmers supervised the digging of local ditches to irrigate the fields surrounding the frontier population clusters that were on the Northern edge of or in the Red River delta rather than the previously developed regions in the Upper River plain it was Han policy to keep soldiers in place as they settled in and became part of the local social fabric the resident military was self- sustaining and was empowered to regularize the revenue flow from conquered territory and also to subdue disaffection over newly imposed hand Revenue demands among prior residents moreover hanel established a coordinated authority over the JY Vietnam Province irrigation systems which they helped to extend an emerging of Chinese and Vietnamese societies began to take place a powerful hanv at landlord class came into existence as government tax demands forced peasants to sell land land to Rich officials and become tenant Farmers on the private Estates or as Han soldiers received communal lands in return for their service previous populations who were driven off this newly assigned land began to settle uncultivated lands based on the new family landholding policies in the new han Viet culture status derived from wealth and the private ownership of land great families lived in fortress-like compounds and supported a private community of guests that included Scholars technical experts spies assassins and private armies the elite ruled by virtue of the validation of their character marked by Seals given and that they attach to the roof lines of their houses replacing the lacera seals and ribbons as symbols of their Authority the remaining tombs of the elite reflect a cultural intermix between Chinese and Vietnamese it was then normal for Chinese men to take Vietnamese wives this was a means of interconnecting the two groups and cultures as the Han Dynasty fell in the 3 Century the hanvit elite took greater interest in Seaborn trade as a secondary source of income Commerce in luxuri Goods was especially a major preoccupation of local administrators Zab 1932 Taylor 1983 196 to 99 Taylor 1986 during the postan era Chinese officials posted in Vietnam was said to have normally extorted 20 to 30% of the merchandises value as it moved through vietnams ports Taylor 1983 107 there were fine lines between piracy corruption and appropriate State service Chinese records characterize War booty chines troops collected when they raided L ports in the mid fifth century as an economic inspiration Taylor 1983 121 among that same era's Chinese records is a summary statement that men who go to jao Vietnam abandon the thankless task of government for more lucrative occupations of Commerce this account also reports that barbarians of the jaia regularly assemble for plunder Taylor 1983 148 that era's South China based Ry a eager to secure the luxuries of the Vietnamese Coast gave special titles to local leaders who helped them collect slaves pearls King fishes elephant tusks and rhinoceros horns and also police the coastline to inhibit piracy so that the lucrative international shipping and caros could make their way to South China's ports Taylor 1983 167 China's occupation of Vietnam between the 3 Century BCE in the 10th Century CE also left a considerable cultural and intellectual Legacy in the form of Confucian thought Vietnam's Confucianism had to compete with other belief systems especially the continuing importance of Buddhism and local animism among Vietnam's Elite Taylor 1986 noan 1997 and Confucian influence in Vietnam was far from uniform varying considerably according to the historical period geographical region and social class no Vietnam based ruler or Aristocrat how whoever deeply committed to Chinese tradition and Confucian thought would have attempted to deny Vietnam's own cultural heritage and separation from the Chinese middle kingdom Vietnam's rulers honoring of important local deities constituted an important part of their legitimacy such spirituality posed a subtle threat to the intellectual and moral Orthodoxy of Confucian humanistic philosophy which for the ruler and the scholarly Elite represented the basis of the secular political and Social Status Quo among China's legacies to Vietnam were the Chinese writ 10 language and artistic philosophical and political forms which would eventually lead Vietnam to be more cified than indianized but below the elite level Chinese influences did not deeply penetrate local populations retained their disdain for Chinese sovereignty and Chinese culture and were determined to maintain their separate identities the emergence of the independ dependent dvet polity the dvet polity of the Red River Delta Region became definitively independent of China in the 10th Century the resulting intensive development of Vietnam's Red River delta environment in the 10th and 11th centuries was important not only for its additional agricultural productivity but also because of its proximity to the Sea like its Southeast Asian contemporaries the dvat state of this period depended on the production of its wet rice economy however aided by its location it also devoted itself to the development of international commercial networks song rule in China was a great Boon to this latter effort for the song welcomed International Commerce and the resulting efflorescence of international trade benefited dvet along with the other overseas centers meanwhile like the mainland W rice states to its West dvit rulers enhanced their resource base by encouraging the development of the red River delta their South and the highlands economy Cali and administratively but also pursued the cultivation of external trade contacts the development of dvit Independence was a side effect of the collapse of the Tang Dynasty in 967 after his 938 Victory against Regional Chinese forces in the battle of the B dang River the major riverine route into the Red River plain from the north NGO Quinn established the initial cap capital of the diet Kingdom at County lower North across the river from Modern Hanoi at a site that was symbolically linked to the pre- Chinese era of the lack Lords after his death 5 years later 12 Regional Warlords competed for control in the 960s the Victorious din Bol Lin R 968 to 980 working in Alliance with the Buddhist monkhood and the General Lone proclaimed himself the first emperor of the independent he renamed D County Viet great Viet State now based at hu in the Hills at the southern edge of the Red River delta D Bolin was succeeded by his infant son who with his mother's approval was quickly replaced by his new stepfather Lon lone R 98015 defeated a Song Dynasty 9601 1279 expedi Shiner force in 981 and then tried to unify his realm notably by defeating a number of revolts and providing the infrastructure for future political stability by building a series of roads to connect Vietnam's diverse regions to his Capitol following lon's death in 1010 the capital relocated at Tang long the site of modern Hanoi a former Tang provincial center surrounded by Buddhist temples and fertile rice fields their Allied aristocratic leaders proclaimed the establishment of the LIE Dynasty 109 to 1225 under Li Kong Yuan known posum asly as Li Tai to R 1009 to 29 Li Kong yuan's son and successor life atar posum asly known as Li taong R 1028 to 1054 is remembered as one of Vietnam's greatest Kings he Consolidated and institutionalized the king's Powers implemented the menow clearway code of common law Wars in 1042 and in 1044 personally led a naval Expedition against the chams the latter initiative was explained in the Vietnamese Chronicles as necessitated by the chams failure to maintain proper order on the southern coast a situation that was as we have seen endemic to the cam style of rule according to the Chronicles live fat M's successful raid on the chams ensured Vietnam's security and thereafter Vietnam enjoyed a period of prosperity in which taxes were reduced foreign Merchants accommodated and markets opened in the mountains Li fat Mar's son succeeded as lion Haan posum asly known as lantong R 1054 to 1072 and began to confer official titles and ranks on his officials and on members of the royal family while also conferring postumus titles on the Royal ancestors Vietnam Chronicles reporting his Reign also highlight his trade initiatives which included contact with sojourning merchants and especially Java he was said to have paid a substantial sum to a Java based Merchant for a pearl that glowed in the dark Taylor 1992 140 to 45 the Vietnamese and their rulers concerned themselves with Loland Highland relations even before the diic period in the 9th century for example Lee Cho protector general of the Vietnamese territory on behalf of the tanged y was said to have changed the terms of trade between the Vietnamese lanss and the mountain Chiefs previously the mountain Chiefs had been bartering horses and cattle for salt from the lowlands Lee Cho took control of salt production in the Tidewater Villages hoping thereby to obtain a larger number of horses that he could sell to accumulate a fortune other local officials were aware of the advantages of such arrangements and one of them is quoted as saying if we cut off the salt and trade on the southern coast we would cause the ruination of the the Highlanders market after 2 years they can be crushed in a single battle Taylor 1983 96 239 to 40 these sources reflect the importance of Vietnamese expansion into the Delta which gave them access to Salt the key commodity in lowland Highland exchanges initially both the Chinese and the Vietnamese administrators were unin ared in expansion into the highlands and were it not for the demands of Commerce and governance the Vietnamese might have remained content to stay in the Red River delta but commercial and revenue needs forc the Vietnamese to re-evaluate the traditional disregard for this region as well as the South where the river systems between Vietnam and cam territories could provide access to the Highland sources of numerous trade goods this desire for better access to the highlands in part explains Vietnam's eventual commit M to Southward expansion which paired with their need to develop agricultural lands and their desire to be more aggressively involved in interner tal trade the first Vietnamese annexation of Cam territory took place in the 11th century shortly after d viet's Independence and 981 Victory against Song Dynasty efforts to reclaim Vietnam as we have seen the early years of the Vietnamese state in the 10th and 11th centuries were especially critical in the transition to a more Al focused Vietnamese political economy the political Unity achieved by D Bolin the founder of the independent Vietnamese state made large Regional markets possible encouraging commercial expansion and attracting foreign Merchants his Capital at hoalu strategically located on the Red River Downstream rather than the traditional political core in the Hanoi region at the northern edge of the Red River delta was itself an important market for trade where as was reported reported for the year 976 Merchant boats from varu Nations Beyond the Sea arrived and presented the goods of their countries Taylor 1983 287 to 88 over time the port at Boh High near the mouth of the Red River also grew in importance especially after the diic capital shifted to Thang Long Hanoi in 1010 this was where Inland trade met the southbound Seaborn trade Wang 19 19 58 82 Whitmore 1986 130 the hu Court 96919 provided the initial market for the luxury goods in which foreign Merchants specialized as an Edict of 975 prescribed types of clothing to be worn by civil and military officials at the court to meet these clothing needs as well as the other material requirements of the emergent Vietnamese Court foreign trade was a necess it to this end envoys were sent to China with many gifts presumably to Proclaim Vietnam as an international marketplace and secure political recognition but also to gain access to the Chinese Marketplace which became the source of the ceremonial paraphernalia cloth and clothing and other material objects necessary to sustain the new Vietnamese courts aristocratic culture and Cults of legitimacy Taylor 1983 146 the the Vietnamese economy was thus trans formed to serve the needs of a strong King lifting himself up in a place hith erto considered insignificant additional development supported the economy in the 11th century in 1048 liong R 1028 to 1054 began the aggressive extension of his dvet States agricultural base in doing so he instituted a China inspired agricultural cult in which the monik was the highest officiate as the symbolic source of fertility the Vietnamese Emperor LED Springtime rights in which he would plow the first fohs and he also symbolically assisted in the Gathering of rice at Harvest at the south gate of his new capital of fang long he made offerings to bring rain and to guarantee crops at the Esplanade of the Gods of the soil and harvest to sustain the substantial expenses of his new ritualized monarchy in the 1040s is previously noted 5 th000 cam War captives were assigned to land and resettled in undeveloped unpopulated areas of the dvet Borderlands where they were allowed to name their new communities after their native cam settlements Ki 1955 164 rad and Temple construction programs linked the capital and the regions in a realm wide communication Network that had both favorable politial and Commercial transport implications the periodic cam raides on their former territory challenged the local bases of Vietnamese Imperial Authority by cting off numbers of Vietnamese Villages while plundering what remained of local Villages and their temples in addition to depleting the state of needed resources these raids challenged Vietnam's Royal stature as portrayed in the Vietnamese Chronicles the main issue in the Vietnamese ruler punitive actions against the chams was that cam rulers failed to properly acknowledge Vietnamese Imperial virtue th th though the Vietnamese State benefited economically from its own military Expeditions against the chams it Justified these counters as acts of reciprocity that were necessary for the future security of the Vietnamese P victory in these exchanges was tremendously important to the Vietnam sa monics they engaged in elaborate preparations for these reciprocal defensive acts for to lose against the Rival chams was Unthinkable in contrast with the AMS the Vietnamese State leadership was ideology C opposed to the use of plundering raids as a regular source of State financing this would have been inconsistent with the state leadership's intended development of a moral Vietnamese Administration which would seek to foster a harmonious State system under the leadership of an educated landbased and moral Buddhist aristocratic Gentry Hall 2010 sea though the Vietnamese State actively linked with the East West sea trade is an acceptable s source of State finances in so doing they were like their fellow rulers of Southeast Asian wet rise States in perceiving these trade derived revenues primarily as an attractive alternative to squeezing additional tax revenues from their lands Cam and Vietnamese commercial developments in perspective during the 10th and 11th centuries the political authorities in the champer and Vietnamese States supported external commercial involvements rulers hope to acquire a share of the profit from Commerce or the luxury goods derived from the trade for ritualized distributions and therefore attempted through diplomatic means to expand their external commercial contacts to this end they sent official embassies and gifts to the Emperors of China at the Eastern polar end of the Indian Ocean trade network but while at least in the 10th and 11th centuries the Vietnamese Kings generally benefited from their Embrace of external trade the interaction of the cam domain with the commercial channels had mixed results though the cam political economy has been described above as fragmented at its core a cam Society emerged in the first Millennium CE that was also hierarchically structured according to the Norms of a localized indic tradition the chams were overtly conscious of status distinctions and the cam social hierarchy was clearly defined as Aristocrats or commoners Merchant compounds were the residencies of those who did not do any of the things that that might lead to the community's composition those who did not engage in populating villages or making Temple endowments or participating in military Expeditions unless assured of an opportunity for personal gain rather than achieving or defending the collective good of the community Merchant and sojer occupancy of the lowest rung on the social ladder was justified as was also their negative mention in the temples of the cam Aristocrats but it should be noted this was not unusual regionally even if the products of their activities were valued similarly in the Vietnamese Chronicles the rare references to Merchants occur only when one might Supply a ruler with exotic products though retrospectively the Vietnamese Chronicles do not provide clear documentation of the hierarchical nature of their early trade networks and Commercial specialists in contrast to the inscriptions of contemporary Java that chapter 5 there is at least ample circumstantial evidence of thriving internal trade especially in the documentation of the 11th and 12th century roadways that linked the major Vietnamese population ritual and political centers an evolving Network that provided the opportunity for a variety of internal exchanges both cultural and economic we can be fairly certain that vital internally integrating Vietnamese marketing networks were in place and spreading from at least the 11th century if not earlier wigs 1992 19 4 to 99 Taylor 1992 140 FF on the other hand the remaining evidence of the cam realm as discussed above does not show a similar internal integration of commercial activity despite the many cultural and social parallels to the Vietnamese realm to its North at least at the river mouths and the connected Upstream river valleys the cam state has been considered a wet rice temple building civilization that favorably compares to that of the developing Anor based K State through its West chapter 6 masaro 1928 kides 1968 socks 1972 furthermore like Anor champer used indic vocabulary and religious Styles in the service of the state champer had impressive Central Temple complexes at my son and paga and other networked indic temples in each of its five River inner zones and cam inscriptions portray cam administ a capacity in a vocabulary similar to that of the K yet though cam inscriptions speak of centralized administrations and present the image of an integrated wet rice socio economy cam epigraphy as well as external sources reflect an incomplete synthesis of the early wet rice State tradition on the part of champer and as a result its political and economic networks were complex often disconnected and highly contested therefore despite the obvious parallels to the other wet rice states of Mainland southeast Asia champa's political Dynamics were actually more similar to those of the riverine and archipelago networks of Island Southeast Asia and better understood as a poity based in the riverine exchange Network system as introduced in chapter 1 see figure 1.1 and detailed in the initial sections of chapter 4 Taylor 1992 153 in its combination of the two Cy temps wet rice agricultural on the one hand multicentered riverine on the other Champa is in some ways analogous to post 1000 Java where as will be seen in chapter 5 the East Java based monarchy was beginning to blend its riverine and rice plain sectors in Java this blending would produce a highly productive political economy that would culminate in the 14th century majapahit poity in Champa however the rice economy did not have nearly the productive capacity as that of java its strategic position relative to the trade route was less vital and its expansion into bordering fertile rice Plains was blocked by its powerful cimar and Vietnamese neighbors for this and other reasons among them being champa's multi-centered geography the political and economic integration achieved in Java was never achievable in Champa and in the following centuries this lack of integration would event to Ally lead to champa's demise but it was not only champer that would feel the strains of change in the next century the 11th and 12th centuries would bring significant political and economic change through a number of Southeast Asia polies particularly on the mainland along with these changes would come the growth of Buddhist cultures though the Camal generally remained committed to Hinduism there was earlier patronage of Buddhism at dong dang that was foundational to a robust Mahayana Buddhist monastic community in 11th and 12th century champer Maxwell 200 7A 2007 winking face as Buddhist monarchies would develop in the Vietnamese and Kamar Realms in this same age hall 2010c post 1000 champer Buddhism was a mix representative of its diverse Maritime and Overland connections to Yan Tibet China and Java in which religious networking and Commercial networking overlapped guy 2009 144 to 52 this same period would see the rise of yet another strong Buddhist realm the Pagan polity in Burma west of Anor chapters 6 and seven detail these developments and their implications for the future of the Southeast Asian mainland