For millennia, the Grand Pyramids of Egypt have towered over the desert sands. Everything about the great ancient civilization that once seized the lands remained a mystery. That is, until July 19th, 1799. A French soldier discovers a large stone about 35 miles east of Alexandria.
during Napoleon Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition. Unearthing a written language that had been dead for thousands of years, the translations would prove to be the key to unlocking the secrets of an entire civilization. Egypt is the gift of the Nile.
That's what Herodotus, the father of history, said. Since the Nile is the lifeline, as it provided Egypt with water for the cultivation of crops, which led to the burgeoning of civilization all along the length of the Nile Valley. The river strip that divided the Egyptian territory into two parts provided a favorable environment for the rise of civilization when the Nile Valley began in the Miocene times. cutting it into its current shape. The various geographical resources effectively contributed to the state's foundation.
As a result of the annual floods that spread the fertile soil to the east and west over the centuries, mud deposits built up. When the water recedes and flows along its banks, the agricultural year begins, making Egypt one of the first agricultural communities that ever existed in human history. At the end of the Paleolithic era, there was a widespread production of arrows, harpoons, querns, sowed skins, boneworks, and pottery.
Carbon-14 tests, on the other hand, were used by researchers to demonstrate that corn was harvested in a Neolithic silo on the edge of Phiam between 4600 and 4250 BC. Later, people built shacks and huts out of reeds and solid mud. and sowed corn on the muddy soil of the Nile marshes.
Ancient Egypt was divided into two territories, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt lay to the north, where the Nile extended out with its several branches to form the Nile Delta. Upper Egypt, which stretched to Aswan, was to the south. The two kingdoms were united around 3000 BC by King Narmer, but each retained its regalia.
The Hedjet or White Crown for Upper Egypt and the Deshret or Red Crown for Lower Egypt. As a result, the Pharaohs were known as the rulers of the two lands, and they wore the Shint, a double crown with each half denoting sovereignty of a different land. The pre-dynastic period in ancient Egypt is the period preceding documented history, encompassing around 6,000 to 3150 BCE, from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic Age, and on to the founding of the First Dynasty.
While there are no written records from this period, archaeological digs in Egypt have unearthed items that convey their tale of the Nile River Valley's cultural history. The pre-dynastic period is called by the regions or ancient city sites where these artifacts were discovered, rather than the cultures that lived there. The Halfan culture thrived circa 30,000 BCE in the area between Egypt and Nubia, giving birth to the Cadan and Sibyllian cultures around 10,000 BCE, and the Harithon culture. All of these cultures are hunter-gatherer societies that gradually grew more sedentary. and settled into more permanent settlements based on agriculture.
The Fiam Oasis is a natural basin located southeast of the Giza Plateau that gave home to the Fiam A civilization during 9000-6000 BCE. These people lived in the vicinity of a vast lake and made their living through agriculture, hunting, and fishing. The people of Fiam constructed reed homes with subterranean basements for food storage.
Cattle, sheep, and sheep. goats were domesticated and basketry and pottery production flourished. During this period, tribal chieftains assumed positions of power, which may have been passed down to the next generation in a family or tribal unit. Communities went from tiny tribes traveling together to large groupings of diverse tribes living in the same region all the time. The Fayyum-A culture gave rise to the Marimdei during 5000-4000 BCE, which was named from artifacts discovered at the location of that name on the western side of the Nile Delta.
The majority of Egyptians were farmers, and agriculture was the basis of the dynastic Egypt economy. and farmers relied on the annual summer floods to grow their crops. We know that the first Egyptian farmers were hunter-gatherers.
They planted crops such as wheat, lentils, barley, flax, and peas, in addition to herding animals. According to what was found on a location in the western side of the Nile Delta, the oldest levels of Marimdi-Beni Salama that evolved between 8000 and 4000 BC, in addition to the Fayyum Basin, Both dating back to the Neolithic era. The Nile Valley's convex terrain encouraged the development of several basins, which in ancient times were flooded with floodwaters every year that brought silt and mud that fertilized the soil.
These basins, of which 130 have been found, served as the irrigation system's reservoirs in ancient Egypt. Granaries were made of clay jars or baskets that were buried up to their necks in the earth. The El Omari culture, about 4000 BCE, developed on these achievements by building circular homes of higher complexity with plastered mud walls.
All of these cultures evolved and flourished in Lower Egypt, Northern Egypt, closest to the Mediterranean Sea, whereas Upper Egypt civilization formed later. The inhabitants of the Baderian culture lived in movable tents, like their ancient forefathers, but preferred fixed homes. Following the Baderian period came the Amratian period, also known as Nakata I, which constructed more complex homes with windows and hearths, wattle and daub walls, and windbreaks around the main entryway. The practice of mummification began around 3500 BCE.
where burial items were still left with the deceased. These developments were aided by the Geirzean culture, also known as Nakata II, which launched trading with other regions, inspiring changes in culture and art. The houses were built of sun-baked brick, and the more opulent ones included courtyards, an addition that would become commonplace in Egyptian homes later.
The city of Abydos, located north of Nakata, became an important burial location, and huge tombs were built, forming a necropolis, a city of the dead. These tombs were originally made of mud bricks, but subsequently of huge, neatly hewn limestone. Eventually, this site would become the burial place for Egypt's rulers. Despite this, evidence reveals that individuals from all across the nation had their deceased buried at Abydos, and gave burial gifts to commemorate their memory. By this time, the cities of Zeus and Hierakompolis were considered ancient, while Thinis, Nakiada, and Nekin were rapidly developing.
The hieroglyphic alphabet, which was invented around 3400-3200 BCE, was used for maintaining records, although no entire sentences from this period have been discovered. At this time, the earliest Egyptian writing discovered so far originates from Abydos, and was discovered on pottery, clay seal imprints, and bone and ivory items. Complete sentences are not found in Egypt until the time of King Peribson in the second dynasty 500 years later. This period led to the Nakata III period from 3200 to 3150 BCE. Following Nakata III, the early dynastic period and Egypt's recorded history began.
With commerce, communities expanded and flourished. and the populations of both Lower and Upper Egypt increased. Small villages of brick dwellings and buildings evolved into bigger urban centers that soon clashed, most likely for trade products and water resources. Thinnes, Nekata, and Nekin were the three principal city-states of Upper Egypt during the period. Thinnes appears to have defeated Nekata before absorbing Nekin.
These battles were fought between the Scorpion King, whose identity is unknown, and others, most likely Ka and Narmer. According to some researchers, Scorpion I, Scorpion II, and Ka were the final three rulers of the proto-dynastic period, before King Narmer invaded and unified Lower and Upper Egypt and created the First Dynasty. The early dynastic period in Egypt began in the years 3150 to 2613 BCE.
This marks the beginning of the country's historical era in which Upper Egypt, the South, and Lower Egypt were divided into two. Egypt to the north were unified as one country under centralized authority. During this time, the divine rule of the monarch started, and a distinct Egyptian culture emerged, including the development of writing, arts, and sciences. Memes, the first king of Egypt, was a ruler of Upper Egypt, presumably from Thenis or Hierakopolis, who defeated the other city-states around him before conquering Lower Egypt around 3150 BCE.
Narmer married the princess Nathotep of Nakata in an arrangement to enhance the links between the two towns. He undertook military operations in Lower Egypt to quell revolts and expand his territory into Canaan and Nubia. He sponsored massive construction projects and urbanization developed throughout his reign.
Oraha, Narmer's son, is assumed to have succeeded him in 3100 BCE. Continuing his father's military expansion and increasing trade, he was notably interested in religion and the concept of the afterlife, and it was under his reign that the Mastaba tomb was built. Horaha was replaced by his son Jer in 3050 BCE, who followed in his father's footsteps.
His son Jet, about 3000 BCE, married Princess Mernith and is considered to have taken leadership of the nation. after his death. It is uncertain whether she governed as regent for her infant son Den or as queen but her reign is notable for being the first time a woman is recorded governing in ancient Egypt. Den, about 2990 BCE, is regarded as the greatest monarch of the first dynasty and reigned for 50 years.
His reputation as an efficient monarch stemmed from his economic advances, military conquests, and the stability of his rule, as proven by expensive construction projects and elaborate works of art. Den is the first monarch to be represented wearing the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, showing that he ruled over a unified nation. Den was succeeded by two additional monarchs, Enejib and later Semerkhet.
both of whom had tough reigns marked by insurgency. The dynasty ended with the Ka's reign, during which his heirs struggled for the throne and were defeated by Hotep II, who established the Second Dynasty. Internal strife and a lack of, or misunderstanding over, records ruined the Second Dynasty, 2890-2670 BCE.
None of the Second Dynasty monarchs have reliable dates. and several of the king's names appear to be repeats of earlier rulers. Hotep II Muye, which means two powerful ones at peace, is a prime illustration of this issue. Because of his name, it would seem that he came to power after subduing the princes who fought for the throne after Qua.
But his name is inscribed on the entrance to Qua's tomb, implying that he was the ruler responsible for burying Qua, and he already had that name before the succession war broke out. broke out. Hotep II Mwi is credited with bringing peace to Egypt upon his ascension to the throne, although a brief one.
Instability and rebellion marked his reign. Ranib, also known as Nibra, was the first to link his name to that of the gods, and so create a bond between the monarch and the divine. There is no reasonable explanation for Peribzan's decision.
Early academics claimed he was the first monotheist, who declared Set to be the sole deity. But evidence of his reign's devotion to various gods disproved this. Because his name is only found in Upper Egypt, it's possible that he opted to ally with Set for political reasons, to distinguish himself from the Horus religion of Lower Egypt. For whatever reason, he is regarded as a good monarch because commerce, the economy, religious practice, and the arts all thrive during his reign.
Porebson was replaced by Kees Kamui, probably his His son, who continued his predecessor's construction projects and is believed to have brought Egypt's two regions back under central control, or at least reinforced unification. His most famous works include the statues at Hierakonpolis and Abydos, as well as his role as the father of Pharaoh Djoser. The Egyptian Third Dynasty starts with King Djoser, best known for his step pyramid at Saqqara. Manetho's timeline is hazy on who Sennaqt was when he governed in the Third Dynasty, and even his name.
Sennaqt's name is is only known from the Abydos monarch list, the Turin Papyrus, and two reliefs discovered in the Mustafa tomb, number K2 at Beit Kalaf. Djoser erected so many monuments that historians have long assumed his tenure extended at least 20 years. He started military campaigns to Sinai and kept Egyptian unity, resulting in the stability required for his construction projects and the growth of the arts. Djoser's step pyramid at Saqqara is Egypt's first recognized pyramid, which was designed by his architect and vizier, Imhotep. Imhotep was a vizier, sage, architect, astrologer, and chief minister under Djoser, the second pharaoh of Egypt's third dynasty, who was later deified and worshipped as the god of medicine in Egypt and Greece, where he was associated with the Greek deity of medicine, Asclepius.
He is thought to have designed the Step Pyramid in Memphis'Saqqara Necropolis. This pyramid, which has six steps, is the world's oldest surviving stone monument. An inscription carrying his name on a statue of Djoser uncovered near the Saqqara Pyramid site attests to Imhotep's high status in Djoser's court. The inscription includes titles such as the Leader of the Sculptures and the Chief of the Seers.
Historical documents depicting Egyptian society and medicine throughout the Old Kingdom demonstrate that the main magician of the pharaoh's court frequently functioned as the nation's chief physician. The step pyramid started as a basic mastaba monument, with a flat top and sloping sides, similar to many previous dynasties'tombs. The architect, Imhotep, on the other hand, had bigger plans for his king's eternal dwelling.
The Step Pyramid is a succession of mastabas piled on top of each other, each step slightly smaller than the one beneath, to create a pyramid shape. Earlier mastabas were made of clay bricks, but the Step Pyramid was made of stone slabs with carved motifs of trees and reeds on them. When finished, the Step Pyramid stood 62 meters tall, making it the tallest building of its period.
To deter robbers and secure the king's corpse and burial goods, the real chambers of the tomb were dug beneath the foundation, as a maze of passageways with rooms off the hallways. However, this strategy did not work because the tomb was robbed of all of its valuables, including the king's corpse. In antiquity, only his foot was discovered in the tomb.
Nonetheless, the step pyramid's design and building epitomize the genius and vision of the Third Dynasty builders. who would later raise the Buried Pyramid and the Layer Pyramid, among many other structures and sanctuaries. These early visionaries established the foundations for the later True Pyramids of the Fourth Dynasty, which have mesmerized and captivated people for millennia.
The Old Kingdom of Egypt is also known as the Age of the Pyramids or the Age of the Pyramid Builders because it contains the Great Fourth Dynasty, during which King Sneferu mastered the craft of pyramid construction and the pyramids of Giza were built under the reigns of Khufu, Khafre, and Mankar. The historical documents of this time, the fourth to sixth dynasties of Egypt, are sparse and historians consider the history of the era as literally written in stone, and mainly architectural in that academics have been able to build a history through the statues and their inscriptions. The pyramids themselves provide little information about their architects, but adjacent funerary shrines in Stelae provide the king's names and other significant information.
In addition, carvings and stone discovered elsewhere during the period document different events and the dates on which they happened. Lastly, the mausoleum of the 5th dynasty's last monarch, Unas, contained the first pyramid texts, detailed drawings and writings inside the tomb that cast light on the religious views of the period. During the old kingdom of Egypt, the elite standardized art, and figures were produced uniformly to reflect the tastes of Memphis, the capital. Although other art forms such as painting and literature exhibit more skill in the Old Kingdom, statues from the late early dynastic and early Old Kingdom periods are very comparable. The Old Kingdom's most famous works of art are the Pyramids of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza, both of which remain today.
Although smaller structures were crafted with the same precision and beauty, In reality, Egyptians placed great importance on old kingdom art and architecture in later ages. Although all levels of society may have shared the same religious systems, social inequality persisted even after death. The only significant impediment to reaching an afterlife was being buried outside of Egypt.
Egyptians thought that, to be reborn, they needed to be buried in Egypt. If they died abroad, their relatives went to tremendous pains to bring their bodies back for burial, so those correct funerary rituals could be performed and they could be buried in their native land, allowing them to enter the afterlife. To coordinate the labor force that constructed the pyramids at Giza and elsewhere during this time, unprecedented bureaucratic efficiency was needed, and this bureaucracy could only function under a powerful central authority.
At the top of the pyramid that represented Egyptian society, the monarch stood. He was granted ownership of all of Egypt by the gods, at least in theory. The literate and illiterate classes were divided in the Egyptian social structure. The literate class was the ruling class.
They were a small fraction of the population, but they were the main criteria for determining the character of ancient Egyptian society and everything we knew about the civilization. Individuals were frequently more important than the positions they held. As a result, while the king established the scope of bureaucratic power, effective administration was ultimately dependent on the same pool of literal aristocrats without whom the king could not govern.
And we'll state some of them as follows. Because an Egyptian king could not personally control every area of society, the role of the vizier was established as early as the early dynastic period. The vizier, who can be assimilated into a form of prime minister, assigned responsibility to other members of the court, sent communications through scribes, and managed the military, regional governors'activities, public works projects, and tax collections, among other things. Huni, the last king of the third dynasty, was long thought to have initiated the massive building projects of the Old Kingdom by constructing the Midam Pyramid. But credit for the Midam Pyramid goes to Sneferu, the first king of the Fourth Dynasty, who may have been Huni's son by one of his minor queens.
Sneferu began the Old Kingdom's golden era, with his most noteworthy achievements being the two pyramids constructed for him at Dashur. Sneferu started his work with the pyramid at Midam, known as the False Pyramid due to its shape. It resembles a tower more than a pyramid, and its exterior casing is surrounded by a massive mound of gravel. The Pyramid of Midam was Egypt's first real pyramid, but it did not last. This is because changes were made to Imhotep's initial pyramid design, causing the exterior casing to sit on sand rather than rock, causing it to fall.
The Crooked Period and the Red Pyramid are Sneferu structures at Dahshur, or North Pyramid. The Bent Pyramid gets its name from the fact that it rises at a 55 degree angle and then changes to a 43 degree angle of smaller stones, giving the impression of bending in towards the summit. The workers had finished the base and sides before recognizing that a 55 degree angle was too steep, and changing their plan to conclude the job as best they could.
Sneferu appears to have grasped the issue and went on to construct his third pyramid. Sneferu appears to have been a ruler unafraid of loss or sorrow. When the bent pyramid failed to satisfy his standards, he simply began over.
The Red Pyramid, named after the use of reddish limestone in its building, was constructed on a firm foundation for better stability and arose at a 43 degree inclination. The Red Pyramid, 105 meters tall, was Egypt's first effective real pyramid. It was originally encased in white limestone, as were the other later pyramids, which crumbled away over time and were collected by locals for other construction projects. Following in the footsteps of Djoser's complex at Saqqara, Sneferu had mortuary temples and the other structures built around his pyramid.
with priests overseeing day-to-day activities once the Red Pyramid was finished. All of this points to the stability of his rule, which he bequeathed to his son Khufu when he died. The ancient Greek authors referred to Khufu as Cheops, and he's best known for his Great Pyramid at Giza. In their works, the Greeks portrayed him as a tyrant who oppressed the people and compelled them to labor for him against their will. This perception may have been created by the tales contained in the Westcar Papyrus, a compilation of four stories written about the kings of the Fourth Dynasty and found by Henry Westcar in around 1824 CE.
The papyrus contains four tales recounted by Khufu's sons, including one in which King Khufu summons a sorcerer who claims to be able to reconnect a decapitated head to a body. and some academics read his actions in requesting a demonstration as malicious or careless. During the reign of Khufu, Egypt became even wealthier as a result of his military battles against Nubia and Libya, as well as his lucrative trade deals with cities such as Byblos.
He also invested in agricultural innovations to improve the livelihoods of his people. During his reign, the world's first documented dam was constructed in Wadi Jarawi, a mountain range west of modern Helwan. This dam improved water availability for farms and others in the town. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the final of the ancient Seven Wonders of the World and a distinguishing emblem of Egypt. It is situated on the Giza Plateau near the modern city of Cairo and was constructed over 20 years during the rule of Khufu.
Although many hypotheses Regarding the pyramid's purpose, the most generally acknowledged idea is that it was built as a tomb for the king. However, how it was constructed remains a mystery to this day. Historians continue to dispute the idea of ramps going around the outside of the building to move the blocks into position. These theories persist despite a growing body of evidence proving that the pyramid was constructed by the ancient Egyptians.
using technical means that were most likely so common to them that they felt no need to document them. Nonetheless, the complexity of the interior passages, shafts and chambers, as well as the nearby Osiris shaft, encourages the persistence of these fringe theories. As does the mystery of how the pyramid was built at all, and its orientation to cardinal points.
A prominent figure during that time, called Hemiuniu, was the vizier during the reign of Khufu in the 4th dynasty, and one of the king's relatives. He was in charge of building his great pyramid, and keeping an eye over its construction works, and he was buried near Khufu's pyramid. The construction work of the pyramid was done by expert and unskilled laborers employed by the state for the job. These employees either offered to pay off a debt, performed community service, or were paid for their time. The annual inundation of the Nile River was important for Egyptian survival because it distributed rich soil from the riverbank all across the shore's farmlands.
However, it also made farming those lands impossible during the flood. During these times, the government supplied work for farms by constructing large monuments. These were the individuals who performed the real physical labor of moving stones, elevating obelisks, constructing temples, and constructing the pyramids that continue to amaze and motivate people today. Khufu was replaced by a family member outside the legal line, called Jadephra, after his death. Jadephra was Khufu's son, but he did not appear to be his designated heir.
Some scholars believe Jadephra built the Great Sphinx of Giza, while others believe Khafre, his sibling and successor, built it. The Sphinx is the world's biggest monolithic monument, showing a recumbent lion's torso with a king's head and visage. Historically, this king's visage has been identified as Khafre's. But Dobrev and others believe it's Khufu's. It appears to have been constructed by Khafre because it is exactly in line with his pyramid complex.
And the Sphinx's face resembles Khafre more than Khufu. Khafre's pyramid is the second largest in Giza, and his complex is almost as big as his father's. Little is known about his rule. According to Egyptian texts, he continued his father's policies and government model by concentrating power...
in the hands of his closest family members and exerting strict control over policies and laws. Following Khafre's demise, succession was temporarily disrupted again when Bakha, Jadafri's son, took the throne. He did not even rule for a year before Menkaure, Khafre's son, took over as monarch. Both the Greeks and the Egyptian writings praise Menkaure.
Menkaure, like his father and grandpa before him, started construction on his Giza Pyramid and Shrine Complex. Menkaure's pyramid and complex are smaller than the other two, which represent a significant development in the history of the Old Kingdom, and one of the causes of its collapse. The resources required to construct the Great Pyramid were no longer accessible during Menkaure's period, but he did his best to establish an everlasting residence on par with his father's and grandfather's. Quenra, Menkiri's son and designated successor, perished while this pyramid was being constructed, upsetting the dynastic succession, and Menkiri died before the pyramid complex was finished.
Despite reigning for 30 years, he was unable to finish the work of his predecessors, which many historians attribute to the dwindling resources at his disposal. Shepseskov, Menkiri's successor, finished Menkiri's structure at Giza, but was buried in a relatively modest mastaba at Saqqara. As previously stated, the monarchs diverted immense resources to their funerary structures and buildings, but these temples and sanctuaries were increasingly under the authority of the priests who managed them, rather than the king.
Although the Giza Plateau is now an old, sand-swept location on the outskirts of Cairo, it was a city of the deceased, inhabited by the living who tended to it. During Menkaure's time, Giza had priests'houses, shrines, worker accommodations, stores, factories, breweries, and all the amenities of a small metropolis. The civilian life in ancient Egypt was very active.
The lowest social class consisted of peasant farmers who did not own the land on which they worked on, or the houses in which they resided. The monarch, members of the court, nomarchs, and priests owned the land. To begin the day, peasants would say, Let us work for the nobility! Peasants were virtually always farmers, regardless of what other trade they practiced. They cultivated and harvested their crops, giving the majority to the landowner while keeping part for themselves.
Most had private gardens, which the ladies maintained while the men worked in the fields. The lowest stratum of society created the items utilized in commerce, allowing the civilization as a whole to survive. These peasants were also part of the workforce that erected Egypt's pyramids and other monuments. When the Nile River's banks overflowed, farming became difficult, and the men and women went to work on the king's projects. This labor was always rewarded, and no literary or physical evidence supports the assertion that any of Egypt's major monuments were erected by slave labor.
Work building monuments like the pyramid and associated burial complexes temples, and obelisks provided the peasantry with the sole possibility of upward mobility. Skilled painters and engravers in particular were in high demand in Egypt, and were paid more than unskilled laborers who merely hauled the stones for the construction from one location to another. Peasant farmers might also raise their status by learning a craft and producing the vases, bowls, plates, and other ceramics that people need. Skilled carpenters could make a fortune, by making tables, desks, chairs, beds, and storage chests, while painters were needed to decorate upper-class dwellings, castles, tombs, and monuments.
Brewers were likewise held in high regard, and breweries were occasionally controlled by women. They appear to have been operated on by females in early Egyptian history. Beer was the most popular beverage in ancient Egypt, and it was commonly utilized as a kind of recompense. Three times a day, workers on the Giza Plateau were given a beer ration. The deity Osiris was said to have provided the drink to the people, and breweries were overseen by the goddess Tenu.
Marriages were more secular than religious in ancient Egypt. The parents planned the majority of weddings in any of the classes. Girls were often married at the age of 12 and boys at the age of 15. Royal offspring were frequently promised to foreign monarchs as babies to seal treaties.
The ancient Egyptians'lives were not all labor. They found plenty of time to have fun by participating in sports, board games, and other activities. Hockey, handball, archery, swimming, tug of war, gymnastics, rowing, and a sport known as water jousting, which was a sea battle played in small boats on the Nile River in which a jouster tried to knock the other out of his boat, while the second team member maneuvered the craft, were all ancient Egyptian sports. The festivals of ancient Egypt were individually distinct in their own right, depending on the nature of the occasion, but they all had one thing in common. Drinking and feasting.
The Egyptian diet consisted mostly of grains, wheat, and vegetables. The meat was incredibly expensive, and only royalty could afford it. The 4th dynasty ended with Shepzikov's brief reign, and the 5th started with much less hope.
The 5th dynasty is known as the Sun King's dynasty because so many of their titles contain the name of the deity Ra, usually given as R.E. The first three of these rulers, Yusurkov, Sahur, and Kakai would later be memorialized as divinely chosen in the West Kar papyrus tale, The Birth of the Kings. The dynasty starts with King Yusurkov, but a lady called Kenkaz, most likely a daughter of Menkor, appears prominently in the Egyptian texts as mother of two kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, though it's unclear who those monarchs were.
Her monument is the fourth pyramid at Giza and she was a significant person. Not much is known about her. Yuzurkov is best renowned for his work on the Temple of the Sun and Abusir. This structure represents a significant divergence from the position of the monarch at the beginning of the 4th dynasty, and the beginning of the end of Giza as the king's necropolis. The sun deity Ra was now venerated directly by the people through the priesthood.
and the king's position as the god's primary representative was reduced. Yuzurkov's son, Sahur, replaced him and constructed his funerary complex at Abusir, near the Temple of the Sun. Sahur was a capable monarch who led the first Egyptian expedition to Punt, and arranged significant trade treaties with other countries. Punt, on the other hand, was one of his biggest accomplishments, as it became an en- important source of many of Egypt's most valuable resources, and in time, was regarded as a legendary country of the gods. Sahir constructed his own temple to the sun in Abusir and was the first to use palma-form columns in the building, which would later become the norm for columns throughout Egypt.
Sahir's war exploits and cautious resource management enriched the nation, as demonstrated by the intricate work done on his mortuary complex, and the inscriptions discovered. His son, Neferirker Kekai, succeeded him. Inscriptions suggest he was a good king and well-regarded, but little is known of his tenure, except that the priesthood got even more dominant during his control. His son, Neferifre, succeeded him but perished young, possibly around the age of 20. He was followed by King Shepsikar.
Nusir-Ini succeeds him, and the priests of Ra acquire even more authority during his rule. The bureaucracy of the temples and mortuary buildings grew as well, putting a burden on royal coffers, which paid for sanctuary care and maintenance. Menkohorkai-Yu replaced him, but little is known about his rule other than the fact that he was the last monarch to construct a temple to the sun.
Jed-Kuraisi replaced him in the late 25th century. to mid-24th century BC. The roots of Jedkaraisi are unclear. He is not regarded as Menkaurkayu's son, but he may be connected.
To keep the economy stable, he reforms the administration and the clergy extensively during his rule. Jedkaraisi refused the customary practice of erecting a shrine to the sun deity and decreased the number of clerics required to maintain funerary structures. He also arranged the Second Punt Expedition, which enriched Egypt and reinforced relations with Punt.
The most important element of Jed Karaisi's reign, however, was the decentralization of the government in Medieval Egypt. which gave local authorities more authority. Genichiraisi was replaced by his son, Unas, the reign of whom is little documented. Unas was the first Egyptian king to have the interior of his tomb decorated and inscribed with what became known as the Pyramid Texts.
These inscriptions depict the king in communion with Ra and Osiris. The position of the king was already considerably reduced when the 6th dynasty started. Local officials and bureaucrats built more elaborate tombs than nobles during the rule of the first monarch, Teddy. Teddy was killed by his bodyguards according to the 3rd century BCE historian, Manetho, an act that would have been inconceivable earlier.
He was replaced by Usurperi, who may have been involved in the assassination plan. His reign was brief, and he was followed by Mariorpepi I. during whom the nomarchs gained authority. By the end of the Old Kingdom, the political power had fragmented and the system was decentralized. The restoration of central power was a lengthy process that lasted well into the 12th dynasty.
Because of the breakdown of central power, political authority passed into the hands of the nomarchs, who took complete control. This pattern persisted during the reigns of Marinrud Nemtunsov I and the reigns of the first, and Neferker Pepi II, who ascended to the kingdom as a child and perished as an old man, signifying an incredible rule of nearly a century. During Pepi II's lengthy rule, the old kingdom gradually crumbled.
The increasing influence of provincial nomarchs and the clergy eroded the central government's and king's authority. Pepi II was followed by Marenra Nemtiumsov II with a very short reign. And the dynasty ended with Netsherkar, who is identified by some scholars and Egyptologists as the Queen Natakris from Herodotus'account of an Egyptian queen who avenges her brother's murder by drowning his killers at a banquet.
Pepe II had outlived any heirs to the throne and appears to have been a pretty ineffective monarch in his final years. When drought caused famine in the country, there was no effective central authority to react to it. The Old Kingdom terminated with the 6th Dynasty because no powerful ruler ascended to the throne to guide the people. Local authorities focused on their areas and lacked the means and motivation to assist the rest of the nation.
As the 6th Dynasty died out, Egypt gradually descended into the First Intermediate Period. The First Intermediate Period is marked primarily by a rise in the authority of provincial administrators of distinct areas, and a decline in the power of the central government at Memphis. The great structures of the Old Kingdom on the scale of Giza's pyramids were no longer constructed within the First Intermediate Period because there was no strong central sovereign to order and pay for them, and no administration to coordinate the large workforce. The cultural image that comes from a study of historical data does not support a chaotic, dark era, but rather a different social and political model than what had come before. There is some historical evidence for the claim of unrest, and claimed disorder, which stems from the absence of a single powerful central government.
The country's different regions were essentially self-governing, The dearth of information about the kings of the 7th and 8th dynasties attest to their ineffectiveness. Their identities and dates will be forgotten in Egyptian annals. The ancient city of Memphis was abandoned at some time by rulers who saw themselves as the heirs of the old kingdom kings.
The rulers of the 9th and 10th dynasties then seized Heracleopolis as their center and declared themselves Egypt's real kings. Inteph, a Theban nomarch who bore the customary epithets of Great Overlord, of the Gnome and Overseer of Priests, came to prominence in Thebes around 2125 BC and opposed the authority of Heracliopolitan kings. Inteph I established Egypt's 11th dynasty and provided the push for the country's unity.
During the Middle Kingdom, he was known as Inteph the Mighty. and a monument in his honor was erected in the Temple of Karnak. And this was the way leading to the beginning of a new era, which was the Middle Kingdom. Although Mentuhotep II was known as the Second Menace, who united Egypt and ushered in the Middle Kingdom period, the road to that unity was laid out by Inteph I and his successors. Mentuhotep I, approximately 2115 BCE, followed Inteph I's path and conquered the neighboring gnomes for Thebes.
Considerably increasing the city's stature and strength, his initiatives were carried on by his predecessor, Menuhotep II used these early victories to ultimately beat Heracleopolis and then punish those gnomes who had stayed faithful to the old kings while rewarding those who had honored themes. Menuhotep II devoted his time after the process of unity to the ruling, military accomplishments and construction projects. Menuhotep's successor, Menuhotep III, reigned during 2010-1998. B.C.E., maintained and expanded his programs.
He dispatched an army to punt and strengthened the northern delta's borders. Mentuhotep IV replaced him. His entire seven-year rule is silent, but he most likely continued his predecessor's policies effectively because the nation is thriving when Amenemhat replaces him as monarch. When Amenemhat was Mentuhotep IV's vizier, and was sent with his mission to quarry stones for the king's project, he had an inscription made of the extraordinary events he witnessed. First, a gazelle gave birth on the stone selected for the king's sarcophagus top, indicating that the stone had been chosen correctly because it was endowed with fecundity and life.
Second, an unanticipated rainfall descended on the celebration, revealing a well big enough to water the entire gathering. This inscription was later interpreted to mean that Amenemhat was chosen by the gods to become king, as the gods had allowed him to experience miracles. Amenemhat I abandoned Thebes for unknown reasons and established his seat in court in Ititawi, south of Memphis.
Amenemhat I's successor, Sennaret I, 1971-1926 BCE, improved the country's infrastructure.. and initiated the kinds of grand building projects that had characterized the old kingdom and represented the king's power, including a temple to Amun at Karnak, which sparked the construction of the great temple complex there. Amenemhat I had followed in the footsteps of Inteph II and Mentuhotep II by restricting the authority of local nomarchs and priests and giving power only to those most trusted in the family. Seneret I continued the same strategy. The administration of the 12th dynasty was so effective that unlike the old kingdom, it kept wealth centralized with the monarch while allowing for the development and prosperity of individual regions without allowing them to become too strong.
The king governed all of Egypt, but specific officers were rewarded for their devotion. The Egyptians developed various advanced ways of irrigation systems. And to keep track of the water levels, they built nilometers to gauge the height of the flood and determine the taxes levels supposed to be paid. Canals were dug to provide water to different areas when Sennaret II decided to turn the Fiam area into an agricultural center. He developed a specific irrigation system with a dike that transported water from Lake Morris, which resulted in crop prosperity in the area.
He was also behind the construction of the White Chapel. A building important to historians and academics because it contains a record of all the gnomes of the period. Centaurate I was followed by Amenemhat II, 1929-1895 BCE, who may have governed alongside him.
The practice of co-regency was unique to the Middle Kingdom, in which a younger man, the monarch's selected heir, usually a son, would govern alongside the king to learn the position. and guarantee a seamless transfer of power. Scholars disagree on whether this practice was truly followed, though there is no question that it was followed by Amenemhat II and his successor, Sennaret II, 1897-1878 BCE.
Double dates for two rulers on official cartouches indicate co-regency. Amenemhat II's reign is little known, but Sennaret II is noted for his excellent ties with the regional nomarchs, and improved prosperity of the nation. It's worth noting that during Sennaret II's rule, local officials thrived just as they had at the end of the old kingdom.
But this did not cause the kingdom the difficulties that it had previously. Sennaret II was followed by Sennaret III, 1878-1860 BCE, the most potent monarch of the period. whose reign was so prosperous that he was deified during his lifetime. His rule is characterized by military advancement in Danubia, as well as a rise in Egypt's riches and influence. Sennaret III exemplified the Egyptian cultural value of military ability, and quick action was the pinnacle of the warrior king.
He was thought to be unbeatable at the helm of his troops. His expeditions into Nubia widened Egypt's borders, and the fortifications he erected along the boundary facilitated commerce. He also conducted an expedition into Palestine, and as a result, trade ties with that area improved. And to control flood and direct irrigation waters, the ancient Egyptians built earth and stone barrages and dams, such as El Lahan Dam, which was erected during the reign of King Amenemad III. who ruled in the 12th dynasty following the reign of Sennaret III, as he wanted to make good use of the flood waters for the irrigation system and to protect the state from destructive high levels of inundation water.
Early November, before the water had entirely left the basins, was the time when preparations for planting season began. Before fields were prepared for planting, irrigation facilities were repaired or cleared, and property lines were re-evaluated. And since ancient Egyptians were known to document every detail of their daily life, we have seen the process of growing and harvesting the grain depicted in great detail in various tombs'paintings. Various crops were planted widely, which made food types plentiful in Egypt, such as emmer wheat, which was used to make bread and beer, grapes for wine, palm dates, doom palms, pigs, sycamore, and papyrus. whose stems were used to make paper-like scrolls for writing and also was a great material to make sails, cords, and even mats.
Various tools were used by the farmers during the planting process, such as a very interesting one called shadiff. It's a hand-operated device used to lift water from the river, which consists of a long pole with a bucket hung on a rope from one end, and the other end has a weight attached to it. It was either used to fill jugs with water to transport them, or even to run water in small canals along ditches.
However, it's normal when people wonder how such a civilization in ancient times managed to erect huge buildings and move colossal statues without having the technology we have in the current modern world. Some scenes from Tombs of High Officials have proof of how the whole process of moving huge statues was done. Jehudi Nakt was a nomarch of the 12th dynasty.
He used to govern the 15th Nome of Upper Egypt. He has a very interesting scene in his tomb of the transportation of a roughly 6.8 meter high monument of him by 172 people using ropes and a slide in an endeavor aided by the dumping of water in front of the slide. Unfortunately, no evidence of this colossus has ever been discovered.
Amenemhat III boasted of no major military triumphs, but constructed almost as many monuments as his father and was responsible for the vast mortuary sanctuary at Hoara, known as the Labyrinth. Amenemhat IV, 1815-1807 BCE, replaced him and maintained his policies. He completed his father's construction tasks and began many of his own. During his reign, military and commercial expeditions were undertaken on numerous occasions, and trade thrived with towns in the Levant, particularly Byblos and elsewhere. The co-Regency policy, if it was implemented, had guaranteed a seamless transfer of power from ruler to ruler, but it failed in the case of Amenyemat IV, who had no male successor to prepare for success.
After his demise, the throne passed to his sister, or probably wife, Sobhinefru, 1807-1802 BCE, whose rule is little known. Unless the Queen Nitikret, Nitocris of the 6th dynasty of the Old Kingdom, is accepted as real, Sobhinefru was the first woman to govern Egypt since the early dynastic period. The 12th dynasty concluded when she perished without an heir. And the 13th started with the reign of Sobekhotep I, 1802 to 1800 BCE. The Middle Kingdom's 12th period was the most powerful and wealthy.
The 13th dynasty would receive the riches and the policies, but would be unable to put them to good use. The 13th dynasty appears to have maintained the policies of the 12th dynasty monarchs and to keep the nation united. But none of them had the personal power of the previous kings.
according to incomplete documents, Lower Egypt started to develop its political groups. This era starts when the Egyptian rulers of the 13th dynasty relocate the capital from Et Tawai to Thebes, the former capital of the late 11th dynasty in Upper Egypt, thereby weakening their grip on the north. Amenemhat I, 1991-1962 BCE, established the tiny settlement of Hudwarit in the far north at the start of the 12th dynasty. which developed into a commercial hub with easy access to the sea and road paths to Sinai and the area of Palestine. During the 13th Dynasty, effective trade and immigration brought an increase of Semitic people to Avaris, who ultimately grew wealthy and powerful enough to wield governmental power in the nation.
These individuals were known to the Egyptians as Heka Kosset, or Hyksos. The name of the Hyksos remains unclear. Many hypotheses have been proposed, including the possibility that they were refugees escaping the Aryan invasion of Asia.
The Nordic invasion hypothesis has been debunked, as has this assertion. The Egyptians referred to them as Asians, but this was a word used for anyone beyond the country's eastern boundary, from the Levant to Mesopotamia. During the late 13th dynasty, the Egyptian monarchs ceased supplying the border fortifications located in Nubia. And no additional soldiers were stationed there.
The troops, who were already stationed at the forts, were never returned to Egypt, and the former garrisons became their permanent residence. These troops served as commerce intermediaries between the Egyptian city of Thebes and the Kingdom of Kush. As the 13th Dynasty neglected matters to the south, just as they were doing to the north, the Kingdom of Kush developed into a centralized power, with its capital at Kerma.
Some of the ancient Egyptian fortifications along the border were destroyed at some time, presumably during an assault, though this is unclear. What is evident is that as Egyptian government and thieves disregarded Kush's influence in the south, Kush's power increased, and the boundary became more flexible. The troops, who had been left behind, no longer saw it as their duty to protect against invasions, and had grown more acclimated to the role of traders than military men by this point.
The monarchs documented for the latter portion of the 13th and 16th dynasties are non-Egyptians, or at the very least, do not have Egyptian names and are considered Hyksos rulers. Their timeline is muddled, and some names are only known from ceremonial items, while others are only known from pieces of king's lists, making dating problematic. The Hyksos achieved economic dominance of the eastern delta and then pushed north, negotiating treaties and forging contracts with various nomarchs, governors of other districts in Lower Egypt, until they had conquered a sizable amount of territory and could exert political authority. Once established in Avaris, the Hyksos elevated Egyptians to positions of power, adopted Egyptian customs and attire, and absorbed Egyptian deity worship into their own beliefs and ceremonies. The Hyksos monarchs established Egypt's 15th dynasty, but once they were evicted, the invading Thebans destroyed all traces of the Hyksos in Egypt.
Only a few Hyksos rulers are known by name thanks to the ruins of inscriptions and other texts discovered at Avaris and elsewhere, including the best known, Apepi. Apepi was also known as Apophis, and had an Egyptian name related to the giant snake Apophis or Apep. the sun god Ra's nemesis. At the same time the Hyksos rose to prominence in northern Egypt, the Nubians rose to power in the south.
The Middle Kingdom's 13th dynasty, like Lower Egypt's, had forgotten to pay attention to its southern frontier. Thebes remained Upper Egypt's capital, but instead of dominating the entire nation, it was wedged between the Hyksos in the north and the Nubians in the south. According to Manetho, a pepi of the Hyksos wrote to the Theban king, Sekeninranta, do away with the hippopotamus pool to the east of the city, for it prevents me from sleeping day and night.
The message was most likely about the Theban practice of hippopotamus hunting, which would have been insulting to the Hyksos, who worshipped Set and included the hippo in their religious observances. Tau, rather than complying with the request, saw it as a challenge to his autonomy and marched on Avarice. His mummy indicates that he was slain in battle, and this, together with the events that follow, reveals that the Thebans were vanquished in this fight. Tawesan Kamos took up the cause, lamenting bitterly in an inscription about having to pay the Asiatics taxes and dealing with outsiders to the north and south of him and his kingdom. He launched a huge attack on the Hyksos, destroying Avaris according to the narrative.
Kamos reports that his attack was so fast and scary that it rendered the Hyksos women barren, and that he destroyed the city to the ground following the carnage. This tale appears to be exaggerated, as the Hyksos retained control of Lower Egypt three years after Kamos'invasion, and Avaris remained the Hyksos'stronghold. Chamos was succeeded by his brother Amos, who, according to the inscriptions, drove the Hyksos out of Egypt and destroyed their metropolis of Avaris. These events are described in the tomb inscriptions of another man, Amos son of Abana, a soldier who fought under King Amos, who describes the devastation of Avaris and the retreat of the remaining Hyksos to Sharowin in the Palestine region. Amos then besieged this city for six years until the Hyksos fled again, this time to Syria, although what happened to them after that is unknown.
Amos I not only established the 18th dynasty but also began the new Kingdom of Egypt, the Age of the Egyptian Empire. The Hyksos were responsible for the formation of a professional Egyptian army of conquest since Amos I, and those who followed him sought to ensure that no foreign nation ever gained such dominance in their land again. The triumph that would become the New Kingdom, a period of unprecedented prosperity and success in Egypt, is the legacy of the Second Intermediate Period.
The 18th Dynasty of Egypt, established by Al-Mawz I, would build some of the most renowned and memorable monuments since the Old Kingdom's pyramids. and expand Egypt's borders into a kingdom. Amos I realized that the Hyksos had been able to establish themselves so securely because previous Egyptian monarchs had permitted them to.
As a result, he chose to establish protected areas around Egypt's boundaries and fortify neglected settlements in strategic locations to protect the nation. The Battle of Amos I against the Hyksos brought him and his troops into touch with the areas of Palestine and Syria. where he continued his operations while also conducting military excursions south against the kingdom of Kush in Nubia. When he died, he had protected the nation and consolidated his authority, leaving a steady political and economic situation for his replacement, Amenhotep I, 1541-1520 BCE. Inscriptions show that Amenhotep I followed his father's policies and modeled himself.
after him as a warrior monarch, but he most likely only commanded battles in Danubia. There are no accounts of him conducting expeditions into Palestine or Syria, but he may have done so because those areas stayed secure during his and his successor's reigns. Thudmosa I, 1520-1492 BCE, replaced him and immediately started wars to expand Egypt's reach.
Thutmose I put down a revolt in Nubia that erupted soon after assuming the throne, personally murdering the Nubian monarch and suspending his corpse from the prow of his ship as a caution to other rebels. He then extended Egypt's control over Nubia further south before shifting his focus to Palestine and Syria. He expanded Thebes'famous Temple of Karnak and built numerous other temples and structures throughout Egypt.
Thudmosa II, 1492-1479 BCE, succeeded him, but little is known about his rule because he was quickly eclipsed by his more potent half-sister, Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut, 1479-1458 BCE, was one of the most potent and effective new kingdom rulers. rulers. Thudmosa II had one child with her and he had another with a minor woman, Thudmosa III, whom he named as his successor 1458-1425 BCE. Following Thudmosa II's death, Hatshepsut was appointed regent of Egypt and officially co-ruled with Thudmosa III, but she had been the force behind her husband's tenure and continued to do so as she saw fit.
After his death, Hatshepsut is in charge of numerous construction initiatives. She conducted the most successful expedition to Punt, added her works to the temple at Karnak, and governed in harmony with Nubia to the south. Her construction undertakings were so beautiful and numerous that subsequent pharaohs claimed ownership of them.
They were able to do so because Hatshepsut's name was taken from all of her structures. including her magnificent complex at Dair el-Bari around 1458 BCE. Concerning the obelisks that were erected in the different temples, they were symbols of the sun god, and many of them can be found everywhere in the whole world, whether they were real Egyptian ones or modern ones imitating the ancient Egyptian obelisks. The process of carving one is not a paradox, as there is an unfinished one located, in the quarries of Granite and Aswan.
Hatshepsut commissioned its construction, probably to accompany what became known as the Lateran Obelisk which was originally at Karnak, but was later brought to the Lateran Palace in Rome. Thutmose III inherited a wealthy and secure country in 1458 BCE and wasted no time in improving it. Thutmose III establishes the Egyptian Empire, which his descendants would sustain. He defeated the neighboring countries and expanded Egypt's dominion further than it had ever been before, using the war chariot acquired from the Hyksos, bronze weaponry, and better strategies. Over 20 years, he led at least 17 separate military campaigns, subduing kingdoms from Libya to Syria and extending Egypt's authority in the south, from the region around Buin down to Kyrgyz.
When Hatshepsut died, Thutmose III ascended to power. Believing him to be weak and inexperienced, the king of the Syrian city of Kadesh instigated a revolt in the Egyptian province of Canaan, which swiftly gathered support from other places aiming to dethrone Egypt. This coalition met in the city of Megiddo.
Thutmose III marched his army from Thebes to Megiddo and northern Canaan, prudently choosing a narrow pass from the town of Aruna, instead of the wider and easier routes to the city, and surprised his enemies by entering the Kina Valley behind their defensive positions and driving them from the field. Thunmosa III had to lay siege to the city to seize it. Janeni, who was Thunmosa III's commander and military scribe, naturally accompanied his monarch in war to put down the rebellion, and wrote a record describing the fight. Thutmose III was so taken by Jani's tale that he had sections of it written on the walls of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak, and to a lesser extent, elsewhere. Janeni begins by describing why the writing on the temple's walls exist.
He then goes on to explain the campaign and its motivations. The wretched adversary referenced on several occasions is the King of Kadesh, who started the revolt and gathered the armies against Egypt. But it is also used to refer to everyone who joined the rebellion at times.
Following the Battle of Megiddo, Thutmose III would subdue and punish those who took part, capturing not just Kadesh but also all of Syria and the Mitanni territories in Mesopotamia. He was succeeded by his son Amenhotep II who inherited and built on his father's powerful and safe kingdom. He was not a warrior king, but he did order many construction projects and signed peace treaties and commerce deals with other countries such as Matani. Thudmosa IV, 1400-1390 BCE, his replacement, carried on his programs.
Based on readings of his renowned dream stelle, which recounts the tale of how he came to the kingdom, Thudmosa IV is regarded as a usurper. Although he's the legal son of Amenhotep II, he's best known as the king who rebuilt Giza's Great Pyramid. He is followed by Amenhotep III, 1386-1353 BCE, who is regarded as the He is one of Egypt's most effective and powerful rulers. Amenhotep III ruled Egypt at a time when it was at its artistic, political, and fiscal apex. His reign was one of the most opulent in Egyptian history, and he frequently used his riches to persuade other nations to do what he desired.
He kept the nation stable, enlarged its boundaries, and devoted himself to the arts and construction initiatives. Many of Egypt's most impressive structures date from his rule. During his reign, however, the priests of Amun started to acquire increasing fortune.
They possessed more property than the monarch and used it to enrich themselves further. Amenhotep III attempted to contain their increasing influence by allying himself with Aten, a minor deity symbolized by a sun disk. He appears to have believed that the authority of the pharaoh behind the worship of Aten would elevate the status of those priests over those of Amun. His scheme failed, but it did elevate the deity Aten, who would play an important role in the rule of Amenhotep's son and successor. Amenhotep IV, also known as Akhenaten, was an Egyptian pharaoh renowned for establishing monotheism and banishing the ancient gods.
His rule became known as the Armana Period, because the Egyptian capital was relocated from Thebes to modern-day Armana. He ascended to the kingdom as Amenhotep IV, but changed his name to Akhenaten in the fourth or fifth year of his rule, dissolved the old religion, particularly the worship of Amun, and raised the deity Aten to the position of the one true god. Only the cult of Aten was recognized as a valid religious organization. All other sanctuaries were shuttered, and their veneration was prohibited.
He built a shrine to Aten at Karnak's Great Temple of Amun, which he also shuttered. His wife was the famous Nefertiti, best known for the magnificent bust created by the sculptor Thutmose. Upon Akhenaten's death, he was succeeded by his young son, Tutankheten. 1336-1327 BCE, who quickly changed his name to Tutankhamun, who took to the throne at just nine years old. The young leader relocated the capital to Memphis, restored Thebes as a religious center, which also held political significance, reopened the temples, and restored Egypt's ancient religion, although he instituted significant changes that helped secure the nation.
He's best known for his magnificent tomb which Howard Carter found in 1922. Tutankhamen was married to Aung San Suu Kyi, his half-sister, until his demise at the age of about 18. Aung San Suu Kyi may then have married the vizier A, possibly 1324-1320 BCE, who some experts believe replaced Tutankhamen, or she may have attempted to reign on her own. Whatever Part A played in the succession, Anxanamen vanished soon after Tutankhamun's death, and the General Hormheb took control, devoting to return Egypt to its former grandeur. Hormheb went to great measures to erase the Armana period rulers from Egyptian history by burning all of Akhenaten's statues and writings, including completely demolishing his sanctuary at Karnak.
Hormheb defended traditional Egyptian religion and customs. Relationships with other countries and Egypt's infrastructure were ignored during Akhenaten's rule. Hormheb returned Egypt to its previous glory, though he was unable to bring it back to the heights of Amenhotep III.
He perished without an heir, and his vizier Parames seized the kingdom as Ramses I, establishing the 19th dynasty. Ramses I was an elderly man when he ascended to the kingdom, and he swiftly named his son, Seti I, as his successor. Ramses I resumed Hormheb's task of rebuilding Egypt's sanctuaries and shrines, as well as adding to the vast Temple of Amun at Karnak.
He gave Seti I the authority to lead military missions to reclaim areas lost during Akhenaten's rule. When he passed, Seti I ascended to the throne, and continued Egypt's reform and revival, adding his own touches to the big project at Karnak, and grooming his successor for dominance, his son, Ramses II. He is the most well-known pharaoh of Egypt today.
Ramses II II governed Egypt for 67 years, and the magnificent temples and monuments he constructed in celebration of his conquests and accomplishments still stand as a testament to the wealth of his reign. There is hardly any ancient Egyptian site that does not mention Ramses II, and the story of his triumph in the Battle of Kadesh in 1274 BC is legendary. However, one of his greatest acts as pharaoh was not one of battle but one of peace.
The forging of the first peace treaty in history. Anatolia's Hittites had been gaining prominence since the second millennium BC, and by 1530 BC they had surpassed Babylonia as a notable nation and they were putting Egypt to the test. Letters of intent had been addressed to the 18th dynasty's king Akhenaten, but he had never responded or taken note of Hittite activities along his boundary. Hormheb had waged unsuccessfully against the Hittites, who had grown even more strong by the time of Tutankhamun, Akhenaten's successor, and were daring enough to garrison districts on or near Egypt's borders.
When Hormheb became pharaoh in 1320 BCE, he initiated a more forceful campaign against the Hittites and secured Egypt's frontiers, although the problem of the Hittite invasions was never fully overcome. Seti I had gained Palestine and Kadesh for Egypt, but, happy with the victory, had made no plans for the city's defense. Now, Ramses II of the 19th dynasty had to cope with the problem of the Hittite invasion, and gathered his forces at Pur-Ramses in 1274 BC to remove the Hittites from Kadesh and weaken their army.
Riding in his chariot at the head of four divisions, 20,000 soldiers, Ramses II marched his first division so quickly that he soon outdistanced the other three. Near Kadesh, two Bedouins were apprehended and asked about the whereabouts of Muwatali II and his army, to which they replied that the army was nowhere near Kadesh and that Muwatali II feared Egypt and the young king. The Bedouins, however, were Hittite spies, and Muwatali II had already fortified Kadesh.
with his chariots, 3,500 of them, and troops, 37,000 men, waiting just over the next hill. According to some combat accounts, Ramses II caught several more spies who told the awful reality about his condition, but the information arrived too late. Ramses II had separated himself from the rest of his army in his haste to seize Kadesh and vanquish the Hittite ruler.
Just as the Hittite chariots slammed into his camp, he dispatched messages to the other three divisions. The Taw Division arrived in time to prevent an Egyptian army defeat, and Ramses II personally led the remaining Amman Division into action many times, pushing the Hittite soldiers back onto the Orontes River, where many perished. Muwatali II just only marched from Kadesh's walls to trap Ramses II's forces between his army by the river and his advance.
But for unexplained reasons, he chose to stay in the city and never committed his reserve men to fight. Ramses II declared a great triumph at Kadesh and had a scribe record his narrative of the wonderful fight. Muwatalli II's version differed significantly, most notably in claiming Kadesh as a Hittite victory. While Ramses II did not capture the city, he did break the Hittite army on the field. And while Mu'atali II kept possession of Kadesh, he did not destroy the Egyptians as he had intended.
Merantah was Ramses II's 12th son, and not his designated successor. He only became pharaoh because all of his siblings had perished during their father's lengthy rule. Merantah soon adopted his father's image of a warrior monarch. defeating the Libyans in combat and repelling an attack on the Sea Peoples.
His description of his exploits include the well-known Marantaw Stele, which contains the first reference to the Israelites as a tribe. Going forth to the 20th Dynasty, Ramses III was the new kingdom's last powerful king. After Hormhild restored the ancient faith, the priests of Amun's authority grew steadily, drawing income and influence away from the monarchy.
Throughout the Ramsid era of the 20th Dynasty, the condition deteriorated. The concept of having a war was existing as the threat of the people was remarkably increasing. which forced Ramses III to declare war over them. The nationality of the Sea Peoples is unknown because the only records of their activities are from Egyptian sources that only describe them in the terms of battle, such as the record from the Tanis Del, which reads in part, They came from the sea in their warships, and none could stand against them.
This is characteristic of Egyptian allusions to these enigmatic invaders. Ramses II His son and successor Meremta and Ramses III are the three great pharaohs who chronicle their struggles and triumphs against the Sea Peoples. All claimed huge victories over their opponents and their inscriptions include the most extensive documentation of the Sea Peoples. During the time of Pharaoh Ramses III, the Sea Peoples invaded and destroyed the Egyptian commerce hub at Kadesh and then attempted to invade Egypt again.
They began their operations with swift attacks along the coast, before pushing toward the delta. In 1180 BC, Ramses III subdued them, but they returned in force. Ramses III would have been aware of his predecessor's fights with these people, and how violent they were. He decided against a field engagement, and instead employed guerrilla tactics as a plan.
He set up ambushes around the coast and along the Nile Delta, and his archers were especially efficient. putting them camouflaged along the beach to shower down arrows on the ships at his signal. The ships were set on fire with burning arrows once the crew was dead or drowning. After crushing the naval invasion, Ramses III turned his focus to what remained of the invading troops on land. He used the same tactics as previously, and in 1178 BC, the Sea Peoples were defeated off the coast of Zoix.
Egyptian anals once again depict a spectacular victory in which many sea peoples were slaughtered and others were captured and coerced into the Egyptian army and fleet or sold as slaves. Although Ramses III spared Egypt from invasion, the battle was so costly that the royal treasury was depleted and the tomb builders at Dair el-Medina could not be paid. This resulted in the first documented labor strike in history.
in which workers walked off the job and refused to return until they were properly reimbursed. And then, the momentum of the Egyptian empire started to fade. Ramses III retained a powerful central authority, secured the borders, and kept Egypt prosperous. But the kingdom was crumbling around him.
The office of the Pharaoh of Egypt no longer held the same level of reverence it once did because the priests of Amun served as an intermediary between the gods. Ramses III was injured in an assassination attempt staged by one of his lesser spouses, and perished as a result of his injuries. Ramses IV ascended to the throne only after his elder siblings perished. He attempted to imitate the great pharaohs of the past and did complete several construction projects, while battling to keep the empire's declining territory.
But he perished after a brief rule. He was succeeded by his son, Ramses V, who fought to retain control against Amun's priests and keep the kingdom together. His successor, Ramses VI, carried on the fight with little success.
Ramses VII replaced him, Followed by Ramses VIII, about whom little is known, Ramses IX, Ramses X, and Ramses XI. All of these pharaohs fought to keep the kingdom together in the face of outside incursions and internal conflicts with Amun's priests. An incident related to these struggles, though obscure, involves a man called Amenhotep, High Priest of Amun, who was deposed by the vizier Pinehazy and forced to escape south to Nubia.
What we are sure about is that the priests of Amun retained huge power and reached the throne of Egypt and ruled the country. Smenes, a ruler of Lower Egypt who governed from Tanis, interred Ramses XI, following the Egyptian In Egyptian custom, a monarch was buried by his successor, and Smenes asserted his legal right to govern by relocating the capital from Per Ramses to Tanis. However, by this time, the priests of Thebes had grown strong enough to assert their authority to rule, and the nation was divided between Tanis'control over Lower Egypt and Thebes'rule over Upper Egypt.
Contrary to popular belief, this split did not end in civil conflict. or internal strife. Smens was strong enough to be noticed, but he only controlled Lower Egypt, and not much of it.
He governed around the same period of Thebes'high priest Herahor, who reigned from around 1080 to 1074 BCE. Herahor was a general of the troops, as were all Amun's high priests, but he had little impact outside of Thebes. This would be the dominant model for the majority of the Third Intermediate Era. Individual nomarchs were strengthened at the cost of either part of the central government, as in the First Intermediate Period, and both Tanis and Thebes failed to exercise any major influence over the nation as a whole.
The 22nd Dynasty, which governed publicly under Libyan titles, was also Libyan. Shoshenq I established it after unifying Egypt, and embarking on war operations reminiscent of Egypt's empire days. Shoshank I reformed Tannis'administration and Thebes'clergy. The clergy would no longer be a hereditary post, but rather one of nomination by the monarch, as would be the choice of God's wife of Amun. His military operations revitalized Egypt's economy, and the nation started to approach the Egypt of the New Kingdom during his reign.
Azarkhan II ascended to the throne in 872 BCE and kept the nation together, but after his rule, Egypt split into distinct kingdoms governing from Heracleopolis, Tanis, Sighs, Memphis, and Hermopolis in Lower Egypt, and Thebes in Upper Egypt. To the south, the Kushite ruler Kashta saw Egypt's vulnerability and moved to exploit it. Kashta adored Egyptian culture and had Egyptianized his capital city of Napata, and thus his entire territory. He had strong trade connections with Thebes and was well versed in the procedure of appointing priests and other high officials.
By 747-721 BCE, his son strengthened Nubian dominance of Upper Egypt, and when the kings of Lower Egypt protested, he commanded a large army against them. Pai conquered Lower Egypt, capturing and subjugating all of the main towns before marching back to Napata. Egypt was now legally under his rule, but he allowed the lower Egyptian kings to regroup and re-establish their power. These buffer zones diminished during the Third Intermediate Period and Egypt lost its prior strength. But there were still countries on its boundary, such as Judah and Israel.
that served the same purpose. The subjugation of those areas by Shoshank I pushed Egypt's boundary up against the Assyrians, with no buffer in between. Moving forth to the 26th dynasty, Semeticus I was a powerful ruler, who instilled in his people the grandeur of Egypt's past by restoring it through massive projects, renovations, restorations, and military feats. His son, Necho II, 610-595 BCE, continued his father's legacy by conducting military battles, ordering construction projects, and expanding the military. The Egyptians were never great seafarers, and Necho II recognized this by establishing a fleet of Greek mercenaries, which proved quite successful.
Necho II is regularly portrayed as a great warrior and military commander. who strengthened the nation he had inherited. During the reign of Amasis II, he was successful in reforming government spending while also stimulating the economy and directing war operations. Egypt came together behind his leadership and thrived once more, with a thriving economy, secure boundaries, and prosperous commerce. Building projects, temples, and other works of art were finished, and Egypt's reputation regained some of its lost lusters.
He was replaced by his son Semeticus III, 526 BCE, who was a young and inexperienced king who was ill-prepared for the difficulties he faced. Cambyses II, the Persian monarch, had sent to Amasis asking for one of his daughters as a bride. But Amasis, not wanting to obey but also trying to prevent confrontation, sent Apreis'daughter instead, who was his predecessor. This former Egyptian princess was profoundly offended by Amasis's choice, particularly since it had long been Egyptian policy not to transfer noble women to foreign monarchs as wives. When she arrived at Cambyses II's palace, she disclosed her true identity, and Cambyses II vowed to revenge Amasis's slander by sending him a fake bride.
Unlike Cambyses, Darius wanted to govern Egypt in his absence. He ascended to the throne of the Achaemenid Empire in 522 BCE and toured Egypt at least twice. favored Egypt from afar. Nonetheless, he adored the culture and directed funds towards the reconstruction of destroyed temples and the dedication of new ones.
In keeping with the Persian practice of religious tolerance, Darius praised the Egyptian gods with presents and statues. He is widely viewed as having a gentler hand with Egypt than Cambyses. For the second Persian conquest of Greece in 480 BCE, his son Xerxes I, 486 to 465 BCE relied on all the resources of the Achaemenid Empire, including Egypt. When the Persians were defeated at Salamis in 480 BCE and Plataea in 479 BCE, Xerxes abandoned foreign affairs in favor of construction projects and different relationships with court ladies.
Artaxerxes I succeeded him and battled for six years to put down the first significant Egyptian rebellion, led by Anaros II, the Libyan royal son of Semtic V. encouraged and assisted by Athens in 460 to 454 BCE. While it is true that the Persians ruled Egypt during the 27th and 31st dynasties, Egyptian culture was kept alive, and the 30th dynasty of Egyptian rulers gave Egypt back a brief time of its former glory before the Persians invaded their land again. This era comprises the 27th to 31st dynasties of Egypt. Egyptian resistance to Persian control, on the other hand, is visible throughout the area, and Egypt thrived under Persian rule because the Persian shahs respected the culture.
Amarteyas of the 28th dynasty, Nektanabo I and Nektanabo II, all governed the nation, commanded troops, and participated in construction projects in the manner of the great pharaohs of the past. Whoever was behind the revolts against Persian authority, Egypt's second conquest did not last long. Philip II of Macedon defeated the Greek city-states and incorporated them into Macedonian authority.
When he was murdered in 336 BCE, he was preparing a grand expedition to subjugate Persia. He already had all of the means he would require for the conquest, which he entrusted to his son Alexander. The pharaohs of the 30th dynasty upheld Egyptians'kingship's honor and left their impressive structures in the footsteps of those who came before them.
So, while the late period may be considered the end of Egyptian sovereignty, it should not be considered the end of Egyptian civilization. Even today, Egypt's cultural accomplishments inspire respect, if not fear, and remain among the most popular and intriguing of the old world. Although times changed, current modern Egypt in the 21st century might look like a coming forward version of ancient Egypt. The Nile River is still sacred to the Egyptian people. And they still celebrate the same festivals of the ancient times, such as the spring festivals.
The food is quite inspired by the authentic ancient food. The traditions are still there, and even the last development form of the ancient language called the Coptic is still spoken in Egypt in churches'prayers and the middle of their Arabic dialect. The modern people are proud of the legacy.
It was seen in the parades that were done in Cairo. for the transportation of the mummies to the Civilizations Museum, and the reopening of the Alley of the Sphinxes in Luxor. They're building new cities, digging their way to improve commerce with the highways dug in the middle of the mountains, passing through the deserts. They're almost opening the biggest museum in the whole world. Excavations unearth every day, new discoveries which might lead soon to a discovery similar to that?
of the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922. And this land will always remain an attractive mystery, dazzling and enchanting people from all over the world with its magic and history.