AP Psychology Unit 2 Summary: Cognition

Introduction

• Lecture by Mr. Sin focuses on key concepts in cognition.
• Importance of active note-taking and utilizing the ultimate review packet and study guide.

Perception

• Perception vs. Sensation:
  • Perception: Interpreting sensory information.
  • Sensation: Raw data received from sensory receptors.

Types of Processing

• Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge to interpret information; efficient but can lead to oversights (e.g., proofreader's illusion).
• Bottom-Up Processing: Building perception from complex, unfamiliar stimuli; takes longer.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas: Mental frameworks from past experiences; guide perception and expectation.
• Perceptual Sets: Mental shortcuts influenced by expectations or emotions.

Influences on Perception

• Culture, mood, environment, and profession can shape perception.
• Examples include optical illusions like the Muller-Lyer illusion.

Attention and Perception

• Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., cocktail party effect).
• Divided Attention: Leads to phenomena like inattentional blindness and change blindness.

Perceptual Phenomena

• Apparent movement, stroboscopic motion, phi phenomenon, induced movement, autokinetic effect.

Gestalt Principles

• Figure and Ground: Differentiating object and background.
• Continuation: Following continuous lines.
• Closure: Filling in missing information.
• Similarity: Grouping similar objects.
• Proximity: Closeness perceived as a group.
• Symmetry: Symmetrical objects seen as one.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Convergence and retinal disparity for depth perception.
• Monocular Cues: Relative size, interposition, relative height, shading, texture gradient, linear perspective, motion parallax.

Perceptual Constancies

• Size, Color, Shape, and Lightness Constancy: Perceiving objects as constant despite changes.

Thinking and Problem Solving

• Cognition: All forms of knowing and awareness.
• Concepts and Prototypes: Organizing and interpreting information.
• Schemas: Built from experiences, influence understanding.
• Algorithms vs. Heuristics: Problem-solving strategies; heuristics are quicker but prone to errors.

Judgment and Decision-Making

• Mental Sets: Relying on past experiences.
• Priming: Exposure to stimuli influencing response.
• Framing: Presentation of information affecting decisions.

Creativity

• Divergent vs. Convergent Thinking: Exploring many solutions vs. narrowing down to one.
• Five Components of Creativity: Expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment.

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler's Fallacy: Misjudging probabilities based on past events.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing action based on past investments.

Memory

Types of Memory

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (episodic and semantic).
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall (procedural).
• Prospective Memory: Remembering future tasks.

Memory Processes

• Encoding: Converting information for storage.
• Storage: Retaining information in memory.
• Retrieval: Accessing stored information.

Memory Models

• Working Memory Model: Processing and temporarily holding information.
• Multi-Store Model: Information processing through sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
• Levels of Processing Model: Depth of processing affects memory retention.

Encoding Strategies

• Types of Encoding: Visual, acoustic, tactile, organizational, elaborative, semantic.
• Mnemonic Devices: Techniques to aid memory (e.g., method of loci).
• Chunking: Organizing information into larger units.
• Distributed Practice: Spacing effect for better retention.

Forgetting

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial loss followed by leveling off.
• Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference in memory.
• Repression: Defense mechanism blocking distressing memories.

Intelligence and Achievement

Intelligence Theories

• General vs. Multiple Intelligence: Debate over intelligence as a single trait or multiple abilities.
• Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence: Problem-solving vs. accumulated knowledge.

Intelligence Testing

• IQ Tests: Measure intelligence; influenced by external factors.
• Bias and Cultural Responsiveness: Importance of minimizing bias.

Psychometric Principles

• Standardization, Reliability, Validity: Ensuring fair and accurate assessment.

Types of Tests

• Achievement Tests: Assess learned knowledge.
• Aptitude Tests: Predict future performance.

Conclusion

• Importance of practice quizzes and review packets for mastering content.