AP Psychology Unit 2 Summary: Cognition

Introduction

• Presenter: Mr. Sin
• Focus on key concepts needed for cognition.
• Emphasis on active learning and note-taking.

Perception vs. Sensation

• Perception: Interpreting sensory information.
• Sensation: Raw data from sensory receptors.
• Example: Sensation detects a stimulus, perception interprets it.

Types of Processing

• Top-Down Processing:
  • Uses prior knowledge to interpret information.
  • Efficient but can overlook details (e.g., proofreader’s illusion).
• Bottom-Up Processing:
  • Builds perception from the ground up without prior knowledge.
  • Takes longer but is accurate for unfamiliar stimuli.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schema: Cognitive framework from past experiences.
• Perceptual Sets: Mental shortcuts influenced by moods and expectations.
• Internal/external factors influence perception.

Attention and Perception

• Selective Attention: Focusing on a specific stimulus in a noisy environment.
• Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy setting.
• Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice stimuli due to divided attention.
• Change Blindness: Failure to notice changes in the environment.

Gestalt Principles

• Figure and Ground: Differentiates objects of focus from the background.
• Continuation, Closure, Similarity, Proximity, Symmetry:
  • Principles explaining visual organization and perception.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Convergence and retinal disparity.
• Monocular Cues: Relative size, interposition, relative height, shading, texture gradient, linear perspective.
• Motion Parallax: Objects move slower if farther away.

Perceptual Constancy

• Size, Color, Shape, Lightness Constancy: Perceiving consistent reality despite changes in stimuli.

Cognition and Problem Solving

• Cognition: Involves perceiving, conceiving, reasoning, judging, imagining.
• Concepts, Prototypes, Schemas: Important for organizing information.
• Algorithms vs. Heuristics: Systematic vs. mental shortcuts for problem-solving.

Creativity

• Divergent Thinking: Exploring multiple solutions.
• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down to the best solution.
• Components of Creativity: Expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment.

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler’s Fallacy: Misbelief about likelihood based on past events.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing a venture due to prior investment.

Memory

• Types of Memory: Explicit (episodic, semantic), Implicit (procedural).
• Process: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
• Working Memory Model: Visual-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, central executive, episodic buffer.

Encoding Strategies

• Mnemonic Devices: Tools to aid memory.
• Chunking: Organizing info into manageable units.
• Distributed Practice: Spacing out learning improves retention.
• Testing Effect: Self-testing enhances memory recall.

Memory Retrieval

• Recall vs. Recognition: Retrieving without cues vs. using cues.
• Retrieval Cues: Environment, mood, physical state can influence recall.

Forgetting and Memory Errors

• Forgetting Curve: Memory retention declines rapidly but stabilizes.
• Interference: Proactive (old affects new) vs. retroactive (new affects old).
• Constructive Memory: Memories can be altered and reconstructed.

Intelligence

• General Intelligence vs. Multiple Abilities: Debate on intelligence being a single trait vs. multiple skills.
• Mindsets: Fixed vs. growth mindset.
• Intelligence Testing: History and evolution of IQ tests, cultural bias concerns.

Conclusion

• Emphasizes the importance of practice and review in mastering AP Psychology material.
• Encourages continued learning and preparation for unit tests.