hi everybody welcome back to history 1301 the first half of US history today we're talking about chapter nine the market Revolution which lasts from about 1800 to about 1840 Americans in the first half of the 19th century described Liberty as the defining quality of the new nation and all of its institutions Americans celebrated freedom in their political speeches and writings newspapers and in their church sermons and freedom was the thing said to make American institutions unique but in this period American people's understandings of Freedom started to change the revolution actually stimulated three distinct historical processes that really sped up after the end of the war of 1812 and those are one the spread of Market relations two westward migration and three the development of a very robust political democracy these forces reshaped American society and led Americans to start associating Freedom with more Economic Opportunity Geographic mobility and Democratic political participation but slavery is still around too and slavery is also going to shape American Notions of Freedom slavery is going to move west and expand alongside a growing Nation Innovations and transportation are going to help spread slaves and slavery too and and slavery is going to create a racial boundary around American democracy that made things like voting office holding and participation in the American public sphere a privilege reserved for white men only in the first half of the 19th century economic changes that are called by historians the market Revolution transformed the United States Innovations in transportation and communication initially sparked a lot of these changes back in the colonial era of American History technology had barely Advanced for example ships didn't really become any faster no canals were built and Manufacturing was still mostly done very slowly by hand roads were scarce and slow where they did exist in the year n 1800 rather in the year 1800 most Farm families were not tied directly to any kind of Open Marketplace they used very little cash and produced much of what they needed at home with their own hands it was nearly impossible for Farmers that lived far away from cities or navigable waterways to get their produce to Market but between 1820 and 1850 the United States joined Great Britain as a worldwide leader in industrialization with the nation's surgeon manufacturing driven by The increased consumption of the goods that it was producing the transportation Revolution dramatically reduced Transportation costs and shipping times it opened up new marketplaces for farmers and manufacturers and provided a new incentive for expanding production before the year 1815 the United States did not possess a transportation system in fact it cost the same amount of money to ship a heavy crate of goods 30 miles over land into the interior of the United States as it did to ship that same crate of heavy materials 3,000 mil across the Atlantic Ocean and water transportation was Far cheaper but it was limited only to the coastlines of the US and along navigable river systems the very first major advance in Overland Transportation was the construction of what were known as toll roads called turnpikes by private companies and by state and local governments but improved water transport much more effectively sped up and drastically lowered the costs of Commerce in 1807 on the Hudson River in New York the very first Steamboat built by a man named Robert Fulton went into operation and steam Boats were revolutionary steamboats made it possible to travel Upstream with a boat and allowed for Rapid transportation across still bodies of water like the great lakes and eventually allowed for transportation across even the Atlantic Ocean in the year 1825 the Eerie Canal in Upstate New York was finally completed and this canal facilitated a huge amount of settlement in Upstate New York and in the old Northwest in those great lake States and helped Foster trade between farmers who were living in the more rural western parts of the country and manufacturers who tended to be on the East Coast the Eerie Canal also unfortunately inspired a huge craze of Canal building by all kinds of different state and local governments many of which ended up going bankrupt when their canals turned out to be unprofitable and not really all that helpful and while canals only connected existing waterways like rivers and others railroads actually opened up vast new areas of the American Interior while at the same time stimulating coal mining because coal was needed for fuel and stimulating more iron manufacturing so that locomotives and train tracks could be laid work on the very first railroad the Baltimore in Ohio also known as the bno railroad began in the year 1828 by the year 1860 though America's rail network was over 30,000 miles long that's more than the total amount of railroad track in the rest of the world put together at the time and state and National level governments played very active role Gos in the transportation Revolution for example state governments sometimes provided money and the national government sometimes supplied land and other services to encourage the development of railroad tracks the railway Network that existed in America by the middle of the 1800s was already though starting to add to sectional differences between the northern part of the United States and the South significantly no direct connection existed that linked Northern Railroad to the South the gauge or the width of the metal railway tracks in the South were not uniform with tracks that ran throughout the North and in many cases you would have to completely unload a train car of goods from one train and then reload all of that cargo onto another train that was on Southern tracks if you ever did want to ship goods down uh down into the South Via railway lines at the exact same time that this railroad Revolution is going on as well the invention of a machine known as the telegraph in the 1830s by a man named Samuel FB Morse started to allow for literal instantaneous communication first used commercially in the year 1844 the telegraph served businesses and newspapers mostly by helping to speed information flow and helping to bring uniformity to prices charged in shops all throughout the country and the American population was booming in the first half of the 1800s as America's population expanded more and more people started to move west and transportation and communication improvements helped to Foster the growth of the West as a new region of the American Nation back on the East Coast declining soil fertility and Rising population pressure in more rural areas along the east coast actually started the uh Propel started to propel a lot of the these migrations into the West between the years 1790 and 1840 is estimated that somewhere around 45 million Americans crossed the Appalachian Mountains much of it after the war of 1812 when land hungry easterners started to more consistently move west and then between the years 1815 and 1821 Indiana Illinois Missouri Alabama Mississippi and Maine are all going to become new states in the Union of the United States of America Regional cultures from all over the East would start to take hold and root and then expand in the west migration belts tended to move east to west maintaining the same north south cultural differences that had already existed along the Atlantic coast settlers who moved into the West usually looked for soil types and climates that were similar to what they were used to back over in the East So eventually three different parallel streams of settlers started to move west first we have small farmers and plantation owners who usually brought slaves in the South they are going to start moving from South Carolina and Georgia into the so-called cotton Kingdom which is made up of the states of Alabama Mississippi Louisiana and Arkansas then slightly further to the north in the middle of the continent we're going to start seeing farming families who originated in the upper South places like North Carolina Virginia and Maryland who are going to start moving to Southern Ohio Indiana and Illinois and then our third and final stream of migration is going to start in the New England area um we're going to see new englanders go are going to start moving across New York into Northern Ohio Indiana Illinois Michigan and even Wisconsin and Yankee culture from New England and New York started to spread all across the Upper Midwest Northern Ohio Indiana and Illinois as well as Michigan and Wisconsin uh those who Moved West tended to confront political matters in the future with a decidedly anti-slavery bent in the north and they valued a communal sense of responsibility that regulated moral behavior and promoted self-improvement migrants from places like Pennsylvania and New Jersey were accustomed to ethnic diversity on the east coast and competing economic groups so that migration group ended up building a consensus around Community Development and also served as a buffer in the midwest between the North and the South Western Farms supplied Eastern manufacturers with access to inexpensive raw materials that could be processed into finish Goods in factories that started to develop on the East Coast Western Farms provided Eastern Urban workers then with plentiful cheap food stuffs as well and in turn the West itself became an Ever growing Marketplace for Eastern made factory Goods National boundaries though did not really prevent American settlement in this age in Florida and later on in Texas and Oregon American settlers are going to start moving into claiming land that was still ruled by foreign countries Spain Mexico and Britain in the case of Florida Texas and Oregon or Native American tribes but those American migrants were deeply confident that as soon as they moved into an area that American sovereignty would soon follow and so American settlers and some military excursions including some led by by Andrew Jackson himself eventually do lead to America's acquisition of Florida by the year 1819 by the year 1840 though about 7 million Americans that's about two fths of the total population of the United States at the time were already living to the west of the Appalachian Mountains the market Revolution and Westward Expansion which actually occurred simultaneously in the North and the South actually served to increase divisions between these two Regional sections perhaps the most dynamic characteristic of America's economy in the early 19th century was the birth of a region known as the cotton Kingdom and the early Industrial Revolution which actually kicked off over in England a couple of decades before it made its way to America was mostly based in Cotton textile factories which of course demanded a massive amount of cotton to function and as it turns out the deep south in America was particularly well suited to growing cotton and then once an American man named Eli Whitney in the year 1793 invented a machine known as the cotton genin which very quickly separated cotton fibers from the seeds of the plant cotton production actually quickened became incredibly profitable and then spread throughout the South the cotton genin was probably the most famous 19th century American invention and the cotton gin made it much easier to produce cotton very cheaply and quickly and it spurred the cultivation of cotton throughout most of the American South so Whitney's invention of the cotton genin along with new Western lands available for settlement and increased Factory demand for cotton all of these things together completely revolutionized and unfortunately ended up reinvigorating American slavery up until this point in American history the practice of slavery had generally been expected to die out with the death of the tobacco industry after centuries and centuries of growing tobacco plants which leech a lot of minerals out of the soil in the same places tobacco plantations stopped being as productive and as profitable and thus the use of slaves on Tobacco plantations was beginning to diminish but the practice of slavery in America was actually not just revived but indeed expanded by the growth of cotton production now back when Congress outlawed the transatlantic slave trade in the year 1808 a new Massive Internal trade in in slaves actually popped up in the United States in which slaves from the older tobacco States like Maryland Virginia and even some from South Carolina are going to start being sold to the newer cotton growing slave areas of the Deep South in fact between the year 1800 and 1860 it's estimated that about 1 million slaves were sold and then forcibly moved to the West as part of the the internal slave trade in America so even though Thomas Jefferson in the past had imagined that someday access to territory in the west would secure the future of an American Republic that he hoped would be populated by independent small farmers it was actually massive slave plantations that produced cotton for international export that truly became the basis of the expansion of the empire of Liberty known as America but even though cotton agriculture in some sense did increase commercialization in the South cotton agriculture did not actually create a very dynamic or Diversified economy for the south in fact cotton slavery cotton Plantation slavery simply spread the old agrarian slave-based social Order of the Eastern Southern States further into the interior of the continent the cotton Kingdom still remained rural and the South transportation and banking systems remained completely underdeveloped arms of the overall plantation economy and Manufacturing and technological development in the South seriously lagged especially when compared with the north up in the northern part of the United States the market Revolution and Westward Expansion spurred changes that transformed the Northeast into an area of integrated of an integrated economy of commercial Farm and Manufacturing cities previously isolated farmers who were now connected to distant marketplaces by new Transportation routes and access to Better Credit started to sell even more goods and acquired access to more cash which they then in turn used to purchase more Goods that they previously made at home from stores Western farmers were able to sell their goods and find access to Credit in the growing East Coast cities of America and access to credit allowed Northern Farmers to purchase more land better fertilizers and new agricultural machines such as the steel plow and the reaper which greatly increased agricultural productivity in Goods such as wheat in the 1790s barely one out of every 20 American people lived in an urban area Philadelphia at the time was the nation's largest City by far with a massive population of slightly over 40,000 people but by the time we get to the middle of the 1800s it's estimated that at that point more than one out of every seven Americans lived in a city and America by 1850 had 10 cities with populations over 50,000 people cities were a part of the West in America from the very very start cities usually developed at the intersection of inter inter inter regional trade routes such as the case with Cincinnati which originally was a center of pig slaughter houses and the City of St Louis in Missouri once they popped up they grew enormously and they grew very quickly in the early 1800s the largest American cities were usually Atlantic Coast port cities like New York City Philadelphia Boston and Baltimore Maryland now all of those cities did explode they grew massively as a result of the transportation Revolution but also accompanying a lot of this Urban growth were unfortunately the first slum areas of America as well but we are going to see the development of Inland port cities cities that are along navigable Rivers such as Cincinnati Cleveland Detroit and Chicago those cities are going to emerge at this time as very import important Urban sitters right from the very beginning Pittsburgh Pennsylvania actually grew up as a coal manufacturer Center that provided cheap coal for fuel to manufacture things like iron and glass in factories all across the country but in addition to becoming one of the coal Centers of America Pittsburgh also very quickly became America's most polluted city as well but ultimately Chicago was the West's greatest City by far thanks to the railroad and the city's location on the edge of the Great Lakes Chicago by the time we get to the year 1860 was already the fourth largest city in America serving as a center where Western farm products were collected and then loaded on trains and shipped to the east coast Urban centers in both the west and the East experienced massive changes brought by the market Revolution the number of people living in cities throughout America increased dramatically at this time and urban Merchants bankers and master Craftsmen exploited the expanding Market amongst commercial farmers in further expanding western territories their efforts to increase production and to cut down on labor costs radically transformed work as We Know It in America skilled Artisans or craftsmen who previously made a whole entire product from start to finish in a home Workshop where they were the ones who could control the pace or the speed of their own work where now once the uh once the Industrial Revolution comes around only able to find good paying work if they gathered together in large fa factories or workshops where businessmen directly supervised them subdivided their tasks and then paid them a wage to perform usually what ended up being just one simple part of the overall process of production and once these Craftsmen started to work in factories these workers faced constant Relentless pressure from their employers to make Goods faster and always for lower and lower wages over time and industrialization ended up diminishing the importance of the Craftsman and the household system of manufacturing the new factory system of production will eventually start to undercut both household-based and artisanal manufacturing particularly after the year 1815 in some Industries particularly in the textile industry factors entirely replaced old traditional craft style production factories would gather together large groups of workers under centralized supervision and hand tools were usually replaced with power-driven machines the factory system could produce Goods far more quickly and far more cheaply per worker than any Craftsman or rural household could ever hope to now in the late 18th century or the late 1700s rather a system known as the putting out system or the outwork system developed in this system local Merchants would provide or put out thus the name raw materials to rural households and then they would pay at a piece rate for the labor that turned those raw materials into finished products that would then be sent back to the manufacturer to be sold so for example a clothing company might provide a household in a rural area with a crate filled with bundles of cut cloth pieces it would then be expected that the people living in those rural households whenever they had spared time when the Harvest wasn't being tended to or something like that or at night members of rural households could gather together and assemble the pieces to sew shirts or blouses adding the collars or adding the buttons or adding the sleeves to the shirt and then when they were finished putting all the pieces back together the rural household would mail back the finished clothing products for which they would be paid at a very low rate let's say you know uh 5 cents a shirt or something like that and the original manufacturer would then sell those finished pieces in their store now this same outwork system characterized a lot of early production early shoe production clothing production in which parts would be sent out to families in rural areas who would then assemble the pieces into finished products send them back to the merchants who then would sell the final product but shoe making and clothing and textiles and all other kinds of Industries are eventually going to be brought together under one massive factory roof now an interesting thing to note here is that in the early 1800s Great Britain was the only country in the world that had blueprints for building very primitive machine driven factories someone had come up with the idea over in Great Britain that if you built a factory near a Rushing River or a strong waterfall you could use the force of that powerfully flowing water to turn a water wheel and the spinning of that water wheel would then power the Machinery inside the factory remember this is an era before WID spread availability of electricity to anyone and steam engines were at this point not in use in factories just yet and Great Britain once they figured out how to build these waterframe factories as they were known very closely guarded its Factory blueprints in fact it was an executable criminal offense you could be killed by the country if you tried to smuggle Factory blueprints out of Great Britain in the early 1800s but that's where a man named Samuel Slater comes in Samuel Slater actually grew up and spent his early life in Great Britain and he had worked in and on factories for most of his life now Samuel Slater was brilliant in that he knew that he couldn't get caught smuggling out blueprints for building a factory out of the country so Slater simply memorized the entire blueprint for building a waterframe factory and then chose to move to America the very first factory built in the United States of America was built in 1790 in the town of Pucket Rhode Island by Samuel Slater who ended up building completely from his own memory a spinning jenny a a spinning jinny is a machine that basically runs multiple spinning wheels at one time turning raw materials like cotton fiber or wool into thread and yarn and Samuel Slater paired those spinning jinnies with a water frame that's where the water wheel dips into the water the very first factories anywhere in the world were generally powered by waterfalls and River Rapids using the force of water to turn a wheel to provide the energy to power machines in the factory and and Samuel Slater made a fortune he didn't just make money from the cloth that his first and only textile factory in America turned out but he later grew very rich from selling plans for how to build your own Factory to other American businessmen from there the very first large American Factory that used machines known as powerlooms to weave cotton thread together to make cloth was built in walam Massachusetts in the year 18 194 then beginning in the 1820s other manufacturers started to establish factories in places like LEL Massachusetts and other small towns all throughout New England creating little small industrial towns and cities all across New England as you can tell by this map on the slide by the 1840s factories in America started to use steam power and steam engines to power their factories which meant that factories from here on out didn't didn't have to be located near a strongly flowing river and steam powered factories could be built anywhere they didn't have to have a river anywhere nearby you could build a factory powered by a steam engine in the middle of the desert if you wanted to though I don't know if anyone would have wanted to in the year 1850 factories in America weren't just making textiles and shoes but all kinds of a wide variety of goods including tools Firearms clocks and even agricultural machinery and eventually the so-called American System of constant manufacturing and thousands of factories just churning out all kinds of mass-produced goods relied on the mass production of interchangeable parts parts of machines that were themselves Stamped Out by machines and were made so precisely that any broken piece of another machine could quickly be assembled into and take the place of a standardized finished product and machines you didn't have to buy a whole new one if one simple switch broke or if one piece broke you could buy a standardized finished product replace the broken part and get your system back online all of these things contributed greatly to the success of the Industrial Revolution once it finally came to America and the market Revolution changed the American people's sense of time overall back in the days of a more Rural America Farm life even at this time was still regulated mostly by seasonal rhythms but clocks that were usually found in cities and especially in factories now started to sharply regulate life and help to distinguish work time from Leisure Time for most Americans Artisans who worked in older traditional craft style production had worked slowly and erratically sometimes taking breaks to have a snack or a drink or talk politics with a neighbor if they stop by but once work Shi Ed to industrialized factories work became much longer more directly supervised and controlled and things like stopping to have a drink or a snack or talk with your fellow workers were not allowed in this kind of Highly disciplined working environment and another contrast pay for the traditional Craftsman had almost always been based on the price of his product that that worker made with their own hands but an industrialized worker usually received an hourly or daily wage for working in a factory for hours on end and railroads which also operated on tightly fixed Tim taes and schedules also spread the use of what came to be known as clock time throughout America but at this early point in the industrial revolution most native born American people thought of working in a factory as ultimately degrading to their sense of Independence and so most American born men simply refused to work in factories when they first came into existence but that didn't scare employers employers then just simply turned to women and children at first with children sh serving as the vast majority of the early industrial Workforce throughout America for years and years to come but factories had different methods for how to staff their workforces factories Drew on families for their Workforce but also tended to hire single adolescent women but later started to depend completely upon immigrants who were desperate to get jobs in America and there were two early systems for recruiting workers in factories in the early Industrial Revolution the first is known as the Rhode Island plan under the Rhode Island plan whole entire farming families would be recruited to go to work for a factory business usually a factory owner would go out and visit a farm and would sit down with the father of the family they would agree to set up the father of the family on a small plot of land that the company owned and they would provide peace work or outwork for the mother of the family to do and the children of the family would go to work in the nearby Mill or factory now you might be wondering at this point why would you want to use children in a factory well two early Factory owners children were particularly attractive as workers because children had have small bodies small hands and are just smaller than adults and they could much more easily reach into machinery and replace or fix small broken parts or pull out a clog in the Machinery should a machine ever have a malfunction so under the Rhode Island plan the entire farming family would come to work in a factory but in reality it would mostly just be the children of the family that work directly in the factory the parents would get to pretend that they were still living as farmers and outworkers but there was another system of factory work recruiting known as the walam system and the walam system recruited unmarried adolescent daughters from Farmers all throughout New England as their primary labor force so what would happen here is that representatives from a factory would go out to rural farming areas and to convince maybe anxious parents that their daughters would be safe and would be guarded from any kind of immorality while working at a factory New England Factory owners actually set up very paternalistic moral controls and supervis their workers very directly so single female workers who worked under the walam system had to live in company-owned and strictly monitored dormitories that had very tight curfews that monitored and screened any potential visitors and which mandated compulsory Church attendance for all workers in the factory that way farming fathers could feel like ah it's safe to send my young daughters out to this factory town they'll be watched after just as if they were still staying at home and best of all the paychecks that those kids would earn would be sent directly to their parents back in their farm town but work for people in factories and Mills was really harsh Mill workers worked six days a week from DUS to Dawn and often for very very low wages but this was the first time that American women were sent out into the public World in large numbers by their families however many of these so-called Mill girls ended up being a sort of transient labor force eventually since most Mill girls quit and then got married or met someone while they were working at the factory and got married after just a couple of years of factory work but don't worry about Factory owners those young girls that were recruited under the walam system are going to quickly be replaced by new groups of immigrants moving to the United States as the majority of the workforce in America in the 1840s and 50s in fact by the mid 1840s it was Irish immigrants who were usually desperate for work once they got in America and who were much more willing to send their children to work in factories and Mills at an even earlier age than American born families that's these immigrants and their families started to take the place of the older Mill Girls by the time we get to the mid 1850s more than half of all textile mill workers were Irish born women and economic necessity forced most immigrants and Factory workers to have no other choice but to accept the criminally low wages and harsh working conditions that they faced in Mills and factories economic growth in America fueled a need for more workers and that need was substantially filled by immigrants to the United States immigration to America swelled between the years 1840 and 1860 and during that time over 4 million people immigrated to the United States most of whom were coming from places like Ireland and Germany immigration from Ireland and Germany swelled the populations of almost every city in the nation and immigrants quickly dominated the manufacturing Workforce of the American Northeast modernization of Agriculture the Industrial Revolution and new steamship and rail Transportation Innovations spurred many of these migrants to come to America many immigrants went to the north at first where jobs were plentiful and slaves were few and immigrants would not have to compete with slaves for jobs very few immigrants actually chose to go to Southern States at this time except for the small handful of peripheral cities in the South like New Orleans St Louis or Baltimore immigrants in Northern cities and in rural areas though were very visible but America offered political and religious freedom to a number of Europeans who were living at the time under repressive governments and or rigid social hierarchies but in reality the largest number of immigrants who came to America were fleeing from a life or death catastrophe and those immigrants were the Irish Catholic peasants living in Ireland were tired of living life as second class citizens dominated by Protestants who owned most of the land in Ireland so life was already pretty bad for Irish Catholics but then in the Years between n or 1845 and 1846 Ireland was hit with something known as the potato blight that wiped out almost all potato po crops in the nation and potatoes were the number one source of food for poor Irish people at the time as a result of this potato blight about 1 million Irish people died of starvation or malnutrition and then on top of that another one and a half million Irish people immigrated to the United States Irish immigrants though often faced intense discrimination in America and they suffered from very high mortality rates due to being restricted to some of of the poorest living and working situations in the country these migrants mostly having worked in the past in agricultural laboring jobs next moved into unskilled or low-skilled jobs in America men mostly went into common labor Rail and constru and Canal construction long shoreman work and factory work and Irish women mostly went into domestic service jobs Germans however were the second largest groups of imig group of immigrants to come to to America and German immigrants were usually not coming to America to escape an immediate life or death situation now of course Germany did have its own political and economic upheavals at the time and indeed those reasons are why many German immigrants left their homelands but these immigrants were not fleeing from a devastating human catastrophe they were instead fleeing from things like recent economic downturn or unfavorable political conditions and as such German immigrants usually came to America with a little bit more money and a little bit more time to plan the move than Irish immigrants did and Germans thus were able to save and plan for their Journeys to America and then to Fan out all over the nation and try to buy land out in the western territories once they got here many Germans also came to America having some kind of marketable job skill overwhelmingly German immigrants were Artisans Craftsmen and shopkeepers and so with these diverse job skill sets German immigrants were able to find plenty of economic opportunities in the fast growing cities of the American West and German immigrants often migrated in groups creating tightly knit German communities in the American east and west another Innovation that happened at this time was that American law in this period increasingly supported the effort of businessmen and entrepreneurs to participate more in the market Revolution while still protecting them from local governments and liabilities that might interfere with their business activities in this age the corporate form of business organization in which a corporate form receives a unique Charter from the government and stockholders in the business are also not individually liable for company debts should the company go under became Central to American Life in this period corporations also found reinforcement and support in a number of Supreme Court decisions that validated their unique legal status local court systems started to find businesses blameless for property damage and held that employers had full complete Authority within the workplace even going so far as to convict workers who joined labor unions or who went on strike against companies based on Old conspiracy laws now this slide might seem tiny and there's not really a ton to say necessarily at this point about corporations but the development of Corporations is actually a turning point in American history which starts to align American politics from here on out more and more with business interests and the government and its judicial system in particular is going to start working in favor of business interests oftentimes over the interests of individual citizens or groups of citizens from here on out in the 1840s American Born workers started to join what were known as nativist organizations groups that tried to curb or completely stop immigration from Europe and tried to limit the rights of Catholic immigrants who nativist severely distrusted while older Protestant English immigrants were very easily absorbed into American culture the Irish faced bitter hostility in the United un States for the most part many Irish immigrants were Roman Catholics in in otherwise mostly Protestant American society that still had some pretty deep nasty anti-catholic traditions and so these Irish immigrants existing in America simply increased the visibility and perceived power of the Catholic church in America much to the Chagrin of American workers native born American workers and nativists in particular who feared the continuing impact of immigration on American political and social life tended to blame immigrants for anything and everything that was going wrong in America at the time immigrants were blamed for rises in crime political corruption heavy drinking of alcohol and severe job competition that tended to undercut wages for American Native born skilled workers nativist critics in America tended to depict the Irish in particular as drunken Fighters and Brawlers and used derogatory racial characteristics that many Native born white people had previously assigned to African-Americans only Irish people were not typically even considered to be racially white at this particular time in American history and nativists specifically believed that the Irish in particular were a uniquely lazy childlike and irrational people completely unfamiliar with and thus Unworthy of American ideas around Liberty they were thought to be naturally subservient to the Catholic Church as well and to many American Protestants who didn't know any better the idea that a foreign Pope could direct the votes of thousands of Catholic voters in the future threatened things like America's Democratic institutions social reform movements and even the public education system so being shunned from many parts of mainstream American society the Irish were actually rapidly integrated into the Democratic party's political Urban machines which tended to hand out and dispense jobs and poor relief to impoverished immigrants when no one else was willing to provide it often times the smallest kindness by Democratic politicians and party supporters would end up gaining lifelong devoted Democratic voters in Irish immigrant communities but then riots began to start that targeted immigrants and their unique institutions and nativist politicians were routinely elected into Power throughout America in the 1840s and 1850s by the 1830s and 1840s the market Revolution combined with continuous Westward Expansion had managed to profoundly affect all American people's lives reinforcing older ideas surrounding freedom but also Alo creating new ones American Freedom had for a very long time at this point been linked with continuously available land out in the west and in this particular period was coined the phrase Manifest Destiny which refers to the allegedly god-given Divine mission of the United States to someday occupy all of the North American continent and to extend American style Freedom despite any costs to people and Nations that might already claim territory out in the west now Manifest Destiny is a term that has long been attributed to the Democratic writer John OS Sullivan in 1805 OS Sullivan proclaimed in a speech that it was America's quote Manifest Destiny to overspread and to possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the development of the great experiment of Liberty and Federated self-government entrusted to us end quote but Manifest Destiny essentially assumed that white Americans had a special god-given mission to spread their particular type of civilization and democracy all over North America and maybe even the world in the mid 19th century Manifest Destiny became a widely held belief in the United States that its settlers and its people were destined to spread across North America from sea to shining sea from Atlant attic to Pacific if nothing else and there are three basic themes that are common to manifest destiny that we should talk about first and foremost Manifest Destiny holds on to the theme that America has unique and special virtues that belong to its people and its institutions this is sometimes also known as American exceptionalism which is an idea where America as a nation tends to always think that it alone is always the most most important the best and the most special amongst all other nations on Earth according to this way of thinking only the United States of America was great enough to undertake this particular challenge known as Manifest Destiny the second theme is that the mission of the United States of America to redeem and remake the West in the image of The Agrarian America that we've known from the past Thomas Jefferson's old ideal of a Nation filled with independent small farmers that is also a running theme with Manifest Destiny at this point and then third and finally that this is an irresistible Duty a destiny that must be accomplished if we are to stay in God's good graces in the future as a nation but a lot of old ideas connecting freedom and a special god-given mission to continuously move out into the west and settle land there well those thoughts actually had their Origins years ago back in colonial times but from here on out in terms of American National myth and ideology the West is going to remain for a very long time an idealistic Sanctuary for all free Americans to many Americans in the middle of the 1800s the settlement and exploitation of the West offered America a chance to avoid becoming like European nations where societ Society was constantly marked by fixed social classes and massive numbers of wage earning poor people in the American West it was felt that free or cheap land was essentially infinite or at least so abundant that it would never run out and Factory labor was much less common the West thus seemed to offer men who were facing wage labor and rising land prices in the eastern part of the United States a new opportunity to again try to gain economic independence for themselves and economic independence in America was seen as the number one social precondition for considering oneself to be free and we also cannot ignore that Manifest Destiny as an idea had an explicitly racist component to it by the time this term became popular in the 1840s the term anglosaxon which at that time and to this day still in some cases Loosely referred to English-speaking white people now started to gain a significantly racist overtone englishspeaking white people people who had descended from European whites is who this was meant for who this Manifest Destiny was meant for and who American Freedom was meant for according to this this way of thinking people who believed in Manifest Destiny began to see themselves as racially Superior to all other racial groups in the world and the allegedly Superior racial pedigree that white Americans claimed for themselves gave white Americans or so they thought a natural god-given right to expand Westward and to bring American style Liberty and work ethics to those lands people who believed in Manifest Destiny simply wanted to take land away from so-called less civilized darker skinned people who might already be living in the west and somehow either get rid of those people or else force them to assimilate into the mainstream white English-speaking American way of life in the future but the energetic super competitive world of the market Revolution led many Americans to start identifying Freedom with a complete absence of any kind of restraint on self-directed individuals who sought their own economic advancement and personal development opportunities for personal growth presented a whole new definition of Thomas Jefferson's Pursuit of Happiness that happened to well fit a new American Nation in which Westward Expansion and continuing Market relations were shattering older spatial and social boundaries in the year 1837 Ralph Waldo Emerson a prominent transcendentalist writer called for a new distinctly American National Style of literature that would be dedicated to the endless de Democratic possibilities of American life and from there a group of New England intellectuals who called themselves the transcendentalists started to reflect this National mood in all of their writings and activities together the transcendentalists insisted that individual personal judgment should always take place take precedence over existing social traditions expectations and institutions and Emerson personally defined freedom in his in his consideration to be an open-ended process of constant self-realization in which individual American people could make and remake themselves and their own lives as many times as they wanted another transcendentalist writer named Henry David thoro began to call for American individuals to Simply rely upon themselves and only themselves a deep core belief of the transcendentalist movement was in the natural inherent goodness of both people and nature transcendentalists therefore believed that American society and its institutions ultimately ended up corrupting the purity of the individual person but transcendentalists had faith that people are always at their best when they are truly self-reliant and independent in this era the term individualism first started to be regularly used in America unlike back in the earlier Colonial period many Americans in the early 1800s now began to believe that individuals should be able to pursue Their Own self-interests no matter what the overall cost might be to the general public good and that they should and could only depend upon themselves American people more and more saw the realm of the private personal self as one in which other individuals but also the government should never be able to interfere now other famous transcendentalist and transcendentalist adjacent writers of the time include people like the poet Walt Witman who in the year 1855 wrote wrote the compilation of poetry called Leaves of Grass which essentially foreshadowed modern poetry styles by using free verse his poems also were known for celebrating the particularly Democratic variety of the American people at the time um another transcendentalist Henry David thorough who I mentioned briefly just a second ago came to be seen as the embodiment of the transcendentalist fascination with nature and with personal self-discovery when he decided to live in almost total isolation in the woods for 16 months near a place called Walden Pond in Massachusetts thoro later wrote about his time at Walden Pond in a book which he titled Walden which was published in 1854 in which quickly became an American literary classic other authors of this time include Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville these were two great American novelists who focused on the existence of evil and the human need for finding belonging in a group Nathaniel Hawthorne's most well-known novels include the scarlet letter and the House of the Seven Gables and Herman Melville is noted for writing amongst other things the massive Tome Moby Dick in the year 1851 which depicted the consequences of one man's intense competitive individualism when left completely unchecked by a social conscience many other Americans at the time not only demanded a greater voice in American politics but also a greater voice in all other aspects of their lives such as in their religious lives in this period many new religious movements in this era rejected the formality and the traditionalism of the older calvinist and congregationalist churches that had been prominent in America since colonial times and a wave of popular religious revivals swept over the nation culminating essentially in an event known as the Second Great Awakening which added a distinctly religious Dimension to the American celebration of self-improvement self-reliance and self-determination of the time these religious revivals were at first organized by already well-established religious leaders who were starting to become worried about low levels of church attendance recently but the Second Great Awakening actually reached its peak in the 1820s and 1830s when a man named Reverend Charles grandison finny started to hold religious revivals in the state of New York like older generations of EV evangelist preachers in the 18th century Reverend finny enthusiastically warned his audiences of the dangers of a fiery hell but promised them salvation if they would agree to end their sinful habits Evangelical preachers like Reverend finny here rejected the idea that was common place amongst other at the time that all men were naturally sinful and were predestined or pre-ordained whether or not they were going to heaven or hell and these new Evangelical preachers instead began to argue that human beings had completely free will to either live in sin or to try to reach heaven by doing good works so in changing American thought processes regarding religion the Second Great Awakening can actually be seen in the context of greater American democratization specifically because the Second Great Awakening created a whole new plethora of opportunities for more participation in religious life and made more room for American women and African-American people as well in this wave of religious fervor Evangelical groups like The methodists and the Baptists began to radically transform Christianity as it was practiced in America and the reason why these two denominations were so popular and changed so much is that the Methodist Church and the Baptist Church those specific types of Christianity were far more rooted in popular people-based movements and they were increasingly popular amongst people who lived in remote Frontier areas and they were able to convert a huge number of marginalized peoples but also regular common everyday American people as well but even angelical style religion appealed especially to women and African-Americans women for example found strength and comfort in the Evangelical message of Christian love and equality of all believers female preachers were actually a Hallmark of the Second Great Awakening and by thus defying social conventions some of these new women Evangelical preachers offered a model of independent female action at the time and also as a result of their uncompromising commitment to converting enslaved people the Baptists and the methodists were actually very popular amongst African-American populations the Baptists and the methodists openly welcomed black people to their Revival meetings encouraged black preachers to speak and advocated for equality amongst all people and the messages that Evangelical preachers offered to Slaves by the Second Great Awakening prom promised them Liberty and deliverance and slaves actually made these particular brands of Christianity a huge part of their unique African-American cultures that were starting to take shape but the Second Great Awakening wasn't just attractive to women and slaves free African-American people also very much liked the styles of worship offered by groups like The Baptists and the methodists now free black practitioners of Christianity were typically shunned by white churchgoers in America black preachers who were invigorated by the Second Great Awakening later went on to found their own independent church groups and as more and more southern plantation owners were drawn in to the Evangelical movement after the 1820s many Southern preachers at first tried to avoid preaching against the institution of slavery in the hopes of trying to attract and not distance themselves from their wealthiest potential future congregationalists but very very quickly white Southern preachers began to actually develop a full-blown religious defense of the institution of slavery in some of their sermons we'll talk more about that in a future chapter but overall the Second Great Awakening as a movement massively democratized and opened up American Christianity and also made religion into a mass Enterprise in this country religious devot and attendance at religious functions boomed in the aftermath of the Second Great Awakening and smaller Evangelical groups like The methodus and the Baptist in particular grew rapidly and Christianity in general became more Central to American culture in the aftermath of the Second Great Awakening the Evangelical preachers of the Second Great Awakening particularly stressed the right of private personal independent judgment when it came to spiritual matters and also spoke frequently about the possibility of universal salvation through faith and Good Deeds evangelicals used opportunities to travel and spread their message which had been made recently available by the market Revolution and their form of mass religion and the idea that ordinary American people could be able to forge their own spiritual Destinies particularly resonated with the spread of Market values around the country while Evangelical preachers criticized selfishness greed and indifference to the welfare of other people the revivals actually flourished in areas that had recently been drastically Changed by the implications of the market Revolution Evangelical ministers promoted a controlled style of individualism one that was marked by hard work industry soety and self-discipline as the true essence of American freedom but one of the longest lasting and largest of the Second Great Awakening religious communities to form at this time was actually a backlash against the market Revolution this group was the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints whose members are most often referred to as Mormons and this church represented the longest lasting most enduring backlash against middle class evangelicals at the time the man who founded the Mormon religion was a guy named Joseph Smith Joseph Smith came originally from a New England farming family that had just recently been uprooted and totally impoverished by market Investments gone wrong Joseph Smith claimed to have found a set of ancient golden tablets which he transcribed and wrote down as the Book of Mormon and Smith from there founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in the late 1820s in Upstate New York Smith and his followers felt generally alienated not only from the new market-based economy in America but from what they saw as the increasing religious and social Anarchy that seemed to be developing and growing all around them Smith's new Mormon faith offered converts to that religion both a sanctuary and a safe place as a biblically protected people and offered them a release from religious and social uncertainties around them in their community ities Mormonism provided a huge defense of communal beliefs that were ultimately centered on male Authority it assigned complete Spiritual Authority and secular Authority only to men but men were bound together in their common labor in a communal economy that was meant to benefit all members of the church driven by a very strong sense of social obligation to their communities the Mormons ended up for ing one of the most successful alternative Visions in America at this time to the much more individualistic Protestant Republic but Joseph Smith's absolute authority over his followers and Mormon people's refusal to separate church and state alarmed many Americans as did the Mormon Church's practice of polygamous marriage in which one man was allowed to have multiple wives the Mormons as as a result of their polygamy and their perceived different religious beliefs were persecuted and driven from state to state to state wherever they thought they might be safe they were chased from New York then to Ohio and then the displaced Mormons next fled to the state of Illinois and settled down in the city of navu where they were able to live with a certain degree of peace and prosperity for several years however eventually tensions between Mormons and non-mormons yet again escalated to the point that in the year 1844 Joseph Smith was beaten to death by a mob and this ended up precipitating a huge succession crisis for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Joseph Smith wasn't planning to die when he was killed and so there wasn't really any successor named to take over once he was gone but the eventual successor to Joseph Smith as leader of the Mormon Church a man named Brigham Young at this point stepped forward to take charge and decided to lead more than 10,000 Mormon followers out of Illinois and as far away as they could possibly get to the shores of the Great Salt Lake in the modern-day area that we know as Utah but the thing to know is that at this particular moment Utah was one of the most remote parts of Mexico's northernmost territories Utah was not at all a part of the United States of America the reason why the Mormons decided to go out to Utah was because they figured that once they got to the shores of the Great Salt Lake that they had gone out so far out into the Untamed Wilderness so far away from all other American settlement that in their estimation it would probably take Generations before American settlers would eventually start to expand into their territory but unfortunately for Brigham Young and the Mormon Community it took just a few decades ades instead of um generations for American encroachment to finally start to get to the edge of Utah but in those years within just a few years actually the Mormon Community was in a stable enough position in Utah that the American government would not be able to get rid of the Mormons once they eventually came in that direction again even though Brigham Young and the Mormon people at the Great Salt Lake settlement thought that it would take probably multiple hundreds of years before Americans got to the Utah territory American expansion actually sped up rather quickly and it's only going to be a couple of years and not a couple of generations before Americans start to expand into Utah territory but overall the case of the Mormon church does highlight that there were still limitations on religious toleration in 19th century America and just so you know the photograph the early photograph in this slide here is a picture of the Mormon Temple that was built in navu Illinois before Joseph Smith was killed and the Mormon Church fled to Utah with the continuation of the market Revolution the right to compete for economic advancement started to become essential to American conceptions of Freedom symbols of Liberty were frequently bound up with symbols of prosperity in this country and stories of men like John Jacob as who was born the son of incredibly poor German immigrants who later became the richest man in America by using money that he earned in the shipping business to invest in Manhattan real estate people like Aster seemed to embody the opportunities open to the quote unquote self-made man in America this kind of success was achieved not through special hereditary privilege or government favoritism as was commonly the case over in Europe but through individual hard work and intelligence the market Revolution and expanding commercial life in America enriched Bankers Merchants industrialists and plantation owners and also ended up producing an entirely new middle class in the American socioeconomic structure that was composed of people who were in between the extremes of wealth and poverty this new middle class was composed of office workers clerks accountants and all sorts of other professionals such as teachers doctors and lawyers in the early years of industrialization the gap between rich and poor people in America widened significantly but in the chasm developed this new emerging middle class wealth in America during the market revolution had become more concentrated into fewer people's hands and extremes of wealth and poverty continuing chipped away at the old Jeffersonian ideal of someday America being a republic filled with many independent equal farmers and Shop owners who all very valued American Liberty because they were all economically free and on the same level with each other at this point halfway through the 1800s America was already a nation with a small handful of very very wealth of PE wealthy people a huge Chasm of people in the middle class and then a handful of very very poor people who were barely scraping by at the bottom of the social structure now the new middle- class in America rose up first in Northern cities the separation between work and home was one of the first defining qualities of the new American middle class as was active support for Evangelical religion the number of non-manual jobs actually increased in the 1800s and these jobs were most mostly available in Northern cities and in growing Market towns where the need was pretty immense for middle class store clerks managers salesmen and independent retailers but very quickly class Consciousness became a thing people began to identify with their own social ranking and the middle class in particular tried to shape its behaviors using the tenants of Evangelical Christianity from here on out but unfortunately not everyone benefited from the market revolution in America most African-American people living in this country were enslaved but even free black people were excluded from a lot of the economic opportunities present in America at this time free black people living in northern states still experienced discrimination in just about every single sphere of their daily lives they were usually segregated into the some some of the poorest and most unhealthy living areas in cities like New York Philadelphia and Cincinnati and they were also routinely subjected to assault in riots led by white mobs African-American people were also barred from schools and other public facilities and as a result found that they had to create their own unique separate institutional life of schools and churches such as the new African Methodist Episcopal church or am church if you've ever seen uh signs outside of a church near you many black Americans experienced downward economic Mobility at this time because they were unable to practice their craft skills because of rampant discrimination by white employers and workers and were typically relegated to some of the most unskilled and most menial low-paid laboring jobs free black people could also not take advantage of the opening up of the West since federal law at the time specifically banned black people from being able to access public land and some Western States actually prohibited black people from even steing foot into their new territories just uh to let you know who is pictured on this slide this is actually a portrait of a woman named Julianne Jane Tilman a preacher a female preacher in the new African Methodist Episcopal Church of the mid 1800s many of the opportunities created by the market Revolution were also completely closed to women as well as the household declined as a sight of economic production women's traditional roles were undermined typically by mass-produced Goods that women used to make it home for their families some women even entered into factories to work while others embraced a new definition of femininity that was centered around women's abilities to create a unique private sphere with within the family home that would be completely removed away from the competitive tensions of the Open Marketplace and the economy in America here within the domestic space of the family home a woman's role was not to produce things to sustain to uh keep their family economically afloat but instead to try to sustain non-market-based values like love and friendship and mutual obligation and ultimately they were expected to provide them men in their family Ames with a shelter in the home space away from the rigors of the outside public Marketplace so as a result of this change in women's roles in America earlier ideas surrounding Republican Motherhood are eventually going to be replaced by what is known as The Cult of Domesticity Under The Cult of Domesticity virtue came to be defined as a personal equality associated with women and women were expected to be sexually innocent beautiful frail and ultimately completely dependent upon men The Cult of Domesticity minimized even women's indirect participation in public life and viewed women as nurturing selfless but completely ruled by their emotions while at the same time seeing men as ultimately rational aggressive and domineering but while men were allowed to freely move between the public space out in the world and the private sphere of the family home women Under The Cult of Domesticity were expected to remain confined within the confines of the private family home but with the elevation of women to the status of the moral guardians of their family units Under The Cult of Domesticity middle class Evangelical religion in the northeastern part of the United States was also becoming somewhat feminized and specifically directed toward WS American women this new social status in religious settings for American women was perceived as particularly threatening to many American men especially men who found themselves in upheaval due to the much more competitive economy of the market revolution in this country in fact many men began to attack what they called feminized Evangelical religion for undermining the paternal patriarchal authority of the man within the family unit in fact the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is oftentimes mentioned as one of the particular groups that was founded in America in reaction to this perceived undermining of the patriarchy but the ideas of The Cult of Domesticity did not accurately capture the realities of life for the many women who worked for wages for at least part of their lives women who worked outside of the family home could not compete freely for jobs with men and only the lowest paying jobs were typically open to women and at this time married women could not legally sign their own contracts or even until the end of the Civil War in the 1860s women were not allowed to keep their own wages wages were always sent directly to their husbands and not to the women who worked for those wages many poor women found jobs working as domestic servants for wealthier families as Factory workers or as seamstresses for middleclass women though respectability was earned in part by being able to keep one's wife and children completely at home and not having to send your wife and children out to the factory or out into the open public space to go to work to help the family pay its bills So eventually it became a part of middleclass life in America for middleclass women to stay at home and not to have jobs and then it became a Hallmark of middle class families to then hire workingclass women to do typical household jobs in even work middle class homes being able to afford to keep your wife out of the workplace as a middleclass man in America was seen as one particularly High Mark of respectability for middle class families and furthermore being able ble to afford to have servants in your middle class house was an additional Mark of respectability for middle class families and middle class homes in the mid 1800s were increasingly found in segregated neighborhoods that were very very far away from the homes of people of poorer classes these so-called middle class values became so popular and so widespread in America that eventually even poor workingclass men tried to adopt these values and began to protest that the modern state of capitalism in America was actually ripping women workingclass women from where they truly belonged which was their workingclass homes and Men also began to protest that the current economic situation was forcing them to have to subject their wives to exploitation and abuse in the marketplace so overall even though some Americans became very very wealthy as a result of the market Revolution many American people actually experienced the market Revolution as an overall loss of freedom and then the American economy suffered a sharp recession starting in the year 1819 and a full-blown Financial Depression started in 1837 and there were several economic downturns in between all of which caused really high levels of unemployment ment and significant reduction in wages for middle class and workingclass Americans the whole time while the economic transformations of the market Revolution did greatly expand America's output and trade and also generally increased living standards throughout the country it also widened significantly the Gap in both wealth and income between wealthy merchants and industrialists in this country and workers and the poor especially in in the urban Northeast of America the economic changes that produced the new middle class in America also produced a new working class that was now predominantly made up of immigrant Origins job skills gender race and ethnicity also continued to divide elements of the working class by the 1830s independent Artisans who could not afford to keep their own independent shops open began to just accept that they would most likely have to work for wages in a factory setting probably for the rest of their lives worried by the erosion of their traditional skills and the danger of eventually being reduced to dependent wage earners skilled Craftsmen starting in the late 1820s began to create the world's first so-called workingman's parties which were usually centered in East Coast cities and which worked to try to improve working conditions for their members but working men's parties were not labor unions and unlike modern-day labor unions these working men's parties were mostly mostly Social Clubs and not actual political movements these were typically short-lived political lobbyist organizations if anything else that really tried to mobilize lower class support for political candidates who were beginning to demand things like free public education for workingclass children and called for an end to things things like prison sentences for owing significant amounts of debt and some of these organizations also called for some of the first laws that would limit the average work day to just 10 hours per day for Working Class People later on in the 1830s we will actually see the first true labor unions start to organize and eventually strikes organized by unions became common early labor unions simply wanted to fight for better wages for their members they wanted shorter working hours and enhanced job security for workers this new labor movement though launched about 150 separate strikes in the mid 1830s wning workers who were protesting against social conditions and pressing for political demands frequently invoked Freedom ideas of freedom and Independence that dated all the way back to the revolutionary era to justify their claims they even started to compare their own status as workingclass people to Slaves by using the term wage slavery thus even while the market Revolution offered opportunities to many Americans it also at the same time generated immense anxieties and protests that came to eventually be reflected in American politics now early unions that formed in the 1830s to defend the rights of Craftsmen often times led to the found ing sometimes of nativist organizations eventually basic divisions began to arise between different groups of Working Class People on the one side you had the male Protestant who had been born in America into a class of skilled Artisans and on the other side you had the workingclass majority of factory workers and unskilled laborers who were predominantly immigrants and women who worked for very low wages as domestic Serv or factory workers in the 1840s American Born workers started to much more regularly join nativist organizations that really tried to curb immigration from Europe in particular and also drastically limit the right of Catholic immigrants who they deeply distrusted nativists also tended to embrace the Evangelical middleclass ideologies of temperance and self-help that were popular amongst American born workers at this time most Catholic workingclass immigrants whether they were Irish or German tended to view things like the business class or the middle class trying to meddle in their private lives when they thought about things like the temperance movement which tried to convince workers to give up their consumption of alcohol nativists and immigrants are going to start clashing over these kinds of cultural differences all throughout the rest of the 19th century and well into the 20th century as well now next time in our next chapter we're going to get back into the political side of things and we will begin to discuss what is known as Jacksonian America or President Andrew Jackson's America see you then