AP Psychology 2025: Core Concepts

1. Biological Basis of Behavior

Neurons & Neurotransmitters

• Neurons: Basic building blocks of the brain/nervous system, communicate via electrical impulses.
• Neurotransmitters: Chemicals transmitting signals (e.g., dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, endorphins).
• Synaptic Transmission: Neurotransmitters cross synapse, bind to receptors on receiving neuron.

Brain Structure

• Cerebral Cortex: Responsible for thinking, memory, decision-making.
• Limbic System: Includes hippocampus (memory), amygdala (emotion), hypothalamus (homeostasis).
• Brainstem: Controls life functions; includes medulla, pons, midbrain.

Endocrine System

• Glands releasing hormones into bloodstream.
• Pituitary Gland: Master gland controlling adrenal glands (fight/flight), thyroid (metabolism), gonads (reproduction).

2. Sensation & Perception

Sensation

• Detecting stimuli from environment through sensory organs.

Perception

• Brain’s interpretation of sensory information into meaningful experiences.
• Transduction: Conversion of sensory signals to electrical signals.
• Sensory Adaptation: Less responsive to unchanging stimuli.

Perceptual Organization

• Gestalt Principles: Objects perceived as wholes (e.g., proximity, similarity).
• Depth Perception: 3D space perception through binocular and monocular cues.

3. Learning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

• Associative learning through neutral stimulus association with unconditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning (Skinner)

• Learning through reinforcement (positive/negative) and punishment.
• Schedules of Reinforcement: Fixed-interval, variable-interval, fixed-ratio, variable-ratio.

Cognitive Learning

• Latent Learning (Tolman): Learning occurs but not demonstrated until incentive.
• Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning by observing others (e.g., Bobo doll).

4. Cognition

Memory

• Encoding: Getting info into memory.
• Storage: Maintaining info over time.
• Retrieval: Getting info out of memory.
• Types: Sensory, Short-Term (STM), Long-Term (LTM).

Thinking & Problem Solving

• Concepts: Mental groupings.
• Heuristics: Decision-making shortcuts.
• Cognitive Biases: Systematic thinking errors.

Language

• Development: Babbling, one-word, two-word stages.
• Theories: Chomsky’s Nativist vs. Skinner’s Behavioral.

5. Development

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

• Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational stages.

Moral Development (Kohlberg)

• Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional stages.

Attachment (Bowlby & Ainsworth)

• Emotional bonds; Strange Situation Experiment.

6. Motivation & Emotion

Motivation Theories

• Drive-Reduction: Motivation to reduce drives.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy: Needs must be satisfied from basic to higher-level.

Emotion Theories

• James-Lange: Emotions from physiological reactions.
• Cannon-Bard: Emotions, physiological responses simultaneous.
• Schachter-Singer: Emotions from arousal and interpretation.

7. Personality

Freud's Psychoanalysis

• Unconscious mind: id, ego, superego.

Humanistic Theories

• Rogers: Self-actualization, unconditional positive regard.
• Maslow: Hierarchy of needs.

Trait Theories

• Big Five Traits (OCEAN): Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

8. Psychological Disorders

Types of Disorders

• Anxiety, Mood, Psychotic disorders (e.g., schizophrenia).

Etiology & Treatment

• Biological predispositions, cognitive-behavioral approaches (e.g., CBT).

9. Social Psychology

Attraction & Relationships

• Proximity, similarity, reciprocity affect attraction.
• Love Theories: Passionate vs. companionate (Sternberg).

Conformity & Obedience

• Asch: Group pressure.
• Milgram: Authority influence.

Group Behavior

• Groupthink: Discouraging dissent.
• Social Loafing: Less effort in groups.

10. Testing & Individual Differences

Intelligence

• Spearman’s G Factor: Single intelligence factor.
• Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Various types.
• Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory: Analytical, creative, practical.

Testing & Assessments

• IQ Tests: Cultural/environmental influences.
• Reliability & Validity: Consistent and accurate measurement.