Exam 3 Study Guide

Chapter 9: Prejudice

Key Concepts

• Prejudice: Preconceived negative judgment of a group and its members. It is an attitude comprising affect (feelings), behavior (inclinations to act), and cognitions (beliefs).
• Stereotypes: Beliefs about the personal attributes of a group, often overgeneralized and inaccurate.
• Discrimination: Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members based on prejudicial attitudes.

Forms of Prejudice

1. Religion: Post-9/11 bias against Arabic cultures and Muslims in the U.S.
2. Obesity: Widespread weight discrimination, especially against women.
3. Sexual Orientation: Prejudice against LGBTQ+ individuals.
4. Age: Patronizing attitudes towards the elderly.
5. Immigrants: Prejudice based on nationality.
6. Politics: Partisan dislike between Democrats and Republicans.

Definitions

• Racism: Prejudicial attitudes and discrimination based on race.
• Sexism: Prejudicial attitudes and discrimination based on sex.

Attitudes

• Implicit vs. Explicit: Implicit attitudes are automatic and unconscious, while explicit attitudes are conscious.
• Implicit Association Test (IAT): Measures implicit cognition, revealing automatic biases.

Racial Prejudice

• Persistent despite societal changes.
• Lived experiences shape perceptions of racial progress.
• Modern prejudice often subtle.

Subtle Forms of Prejudice

• Employment discrimination.
• Bias in services like Airbnb and Uber.
• Patronizing feedback based on race.

Automatic Prejudice

• Influences in high-stress situations.
• Linked to neural activity and fear responses.

Stereotypes

• Strong gender stereotypes exist.
• Benevolent vs. Hostile Sexism: Benevolent sexism appears positive but is harmful; hostile sexism is overtly negative.

Institutional Support

• Institutions can perpetuate prejudice through policies and norms.

Motivational Sources

• Social Identity Theory: Need to feel superior to others leads to prejudice.
• Scapegoat Theory: Displacement of aggression onto easier targets.

Cognitive Sources

• Categorization simplifies the environment but can lead to stereotyping.
• The Outgroup Homogeneity Effect: Perception that outgroup members are more similar than ingroup members.
• Own-race Bias: Easier recognition of faces from one’s own race.

Consequences of Prejudice

• Prejudgments lead to self-fulfilling prophecies.
• Stereotype Threat: Concern of being evaluated based on stereotypes negatively affects performance.

Chapter 10: Aggression

Definitions

• Aggression: Physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm.
  • Hostile Aggression: Driven by anger, aimed at injury.
  • Instrumental Aggression: Means to an end, such as strategic violence.

Theories of Aggression

• Biological: Includes neural, genetic, and biochemical influences.
• Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration increases aggression.
• Social Learning Theory: Observational learning; aggression is learned by observing others.

Influences on Aggression

• Aversive incidents like pain, heat, and attacks can increase aggression.
• Arousal and Aggression Cues: Psychological states and environmental cues can trigger aggression.
• Media Influences: Violent content increases aggressive behavior and thoughts.

Group Influences

• Groups can amplify aggression through social contagion and the diffusion of responsibility.

Chapter 11: Intimacy - Liking and Loving Others

Factors Influencing Liking and Loving

• Proximity: Geographical closeness increases the likelihood of relationships.
• Physical Attractiveness: Affects first impressions and dating frequency.
  • Matching Phenomenon: People choose partners of similar attractiveness.

Types of Love

• Passionate Love: Intense longing and desire for union with another.
• Companionate Love: Deep, affectionate attachment as passionate love fades.

Relationship Dynamics

• Attachment Styles: Secure, avoidant, and anxious attachment affect relationships.
• Equity and Self-disclosure: Balance and open communication improve relationship satisfaction.

Ending Relationships

• Detachment Process: Involves emotional processing and eventual adaptation to change.

Chapter 12: Helping

Theories of Helping

• Social Exchange Theory: Interactions aim to maximize rewards and minimize costs.
• Reciprocity Norm: Expectation that people will help those who have helped them.

Influences on Helping

• Social Responsibility Norm: Helping those in need based on perceived uncontrollable circumstances.
• Gender Differences: Women give help equally; men are more likely to help women.

Bystander Effect

• More bystanders decrease the likelihood of helping.
• Influenced by the number and behavior of others.

Increasing Helping Behavior

• Reducing ambiguity and increasing responsibility can promote helping.
• Modeling altruism and teaching moral inclusion encourage helping.

Notes

• Mention of significant studies and experiments to understand the discussed concepts.
• Focus on understanding how societal, cognitive, and interpersonal factors influence prejudice, aggression, intimacy, and helping behaviors.
• Recognize the implications of these theories and studies on real-world situations and personal interactions.