Overview
This lecture covers the APUSH Unit 1 time period (1491–1607), focusing on the diverse indigenous societies in North America before European contact, the causes and effects of European exploration and colonization, and the profound changes resulting from the Columbian Exchange.
Indigenous Societies Before 1492
- Indigenous peoples in the Americas were highly diverse and shaped by their geography.
- Maize cultivation, starting in southern Mexico, enabled economic development, permanent settlements, advanced irrigation, and social diversification.
- The Iroquois in the Northeast were semi-sedentary, lived in longhouses, and relied on maize.
- The Cherokee in the Southeast practiced agriculture and matrilineal inheritance.
- Mississippian cultures built large urban centers like Cahokia and developed social hierarchies.
- Great Basin and Plains peoples, like the Ute, were nomadic due to harsh climates and lived in teepees.
- Northwest and California indigenous groups, such as the Chinook, were sedentary fishermen, not farmers.
Causes of European Exploration
- Europeans were motivated by gold (economic), God (religious), and glory (political expansion).
- Economic motives grew after Portugal’s sea route around Africa; Spain looked westward.
- New maritime technology (caravel, compass, astrolabe) and joint-stock companies enabled exploration.
- Spain funded Columbus in 1492, initiating New World colonization.
- Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided New World territory between Spain and Portugal.
Effects of Spanish Colonization
- Conquistadors conquered wealthy empires (e.g., Aztecs, Incas), extracting gold, silver, and cash crops.
- Encomienda system coerced indigenous labor on plantations and mines, often resulting in abuse.
- Enslaved African laborers replaced indigenous workers as disease and escape reduced native populations.
- The Spanish imposed a caste system based on race to maintain control.
The Columbian Exchange
- The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, minerals, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds.
- European diseases, especially smallpox, devastated indigenous populations (up to 90% mortality).
- New crops (maize, potatoes) from the Americas boosted Old World populations.
- Livestock (horses, cattle, pigs) transformed native environments and societies.
- Millions of enslaved Africans were brought to the Americas for labor.
Contrasting Worldviews and Cultural Exchange
- Europeans and natives differed in land ownership (private vs. communal), religion (monotheism vs. animism/polytheism), gender roles (patriarchal vs. sometimes matrilineal), and family structure (nuclear vs. extended).
- Both groups adopted some aspects of each other's cultures, though often with conflict or coercion.
- Indigenous resistance included both diplomacy and armed rebellion (e.g., Taino Rebellion 1511).
Debates on Indigenous and African Status
- European debates (e.g., Valladolid Debates) questioned the humanity and treatment of indigenous peoples.
- Bartolomé de Las Casas argued for the humanity of natives; Sepúlveda claimed they were inferior.
- Justifications for African slavery included religious interpretations like the "Curse of Ham."
Key Terms & Definitions
- Maize — Corn, a staple crop central to many indigenous societies.
- Encomienda System — Spanish system granting colonists land and native labor in exchange for supposed protection and conversion.
- Columbian Exchange — The massive exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Old and New Worlds after 1492.
- Joint-stock Company — Business structure pooling resources from many investors to fund risky overseas ventures.
- Casta System — Spanish colonial social hierarchy based on race and birthplace.
- Treaty of Tordesillas — 1494 agreement dividing New World territories between Spain and Portugal.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Be able to identify and describe at least one indigenous group from each region (Northeast, Southeast, Mississippi Valley, Great Plains, Northwest).
- Review the causes and effects of the Columbian Exchange.
- Know definitions of major systems and terms (maize, encomienda, casta, joint-stock).
- Study primary differences between European and indigenous worldviews.
- Prepare examples of indigenous resistance and European debates about colonial policies.