Lecture Notes: American History and Key Historical Periods

Key Figures and Events in American History

Benjamin Franklin

• One of the most famous Founding Fathers
• Advocated for American independence before the Revolution
• Favored colonial unity and an independent nation
• Renowned scientist, known in Europe
• Served as a diplomat in Europe during the American Revolution
• Secured French support, crucial for colonial victory
• Helped draft the Declaration of Independence

Revolutionary War

• Conflict between Great Britain and 13 American colonies
• Colonists formed assemblies and militias in response to British laws and taxes
• Key Battles:
  • Lexington and Concord (April 1775): First battles, colonists resisted British soldiers
  • Bunker Hill (June 1775): Bloody battle, British won but lost many troops; showed colonists could stand up to British soldiers
  • Trenton (December 26, 1776): First colonial victory; Washington's surprise attack
  • Saratoga: Major turning point; British surrender led to French support
  • Yorktown (October 19, 1781): British General Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending the war
• Treaty of Paris (September 3, 1783): Officially ended the war, recognized U.S. independence

Manifest Destiny

• Belief that America was destined to expand westward
• Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and Louisiana Purchase of 1803 expanded U.S. territory
• Conflicts with Native Americans, Great Britain, Mexico, and Spain
• Mexican-American War (1846-1847): Gained Texas, California, and Southwest
• Oregon Territory Compromise (1846): Established U.S. boundaries south of the 49th parallel
• U.S. achieved coast-to-coast expansion

American Civil War (1861-1865)

• Conflict between Confederacy (South) and Union (North)
• Causes: Slavery, sectionalism, territorial crisis, national elections, states' rights
• Key Battles:
  • Fort Sumter (1861): Start of the war
  • Gettysburg (1863): Turning point, tide turned to the North
  • Appomattox Courthouse (1865): Lee surrendered to Grant, ending the war
• Reconstruction Era (Post-1865): Adjusting to freed slaves, 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments

The Progressive Era (1890s-1920s)

• Focus on eliminating government corruption
• Advocated for prohibition, women’s suffrage, modernization
• Mimicked Western Europe in reforms
• Federal Reserve System introduced
• Movement from local to national level

The Egyptians

• Lived along the lower Nile River around 3000 BC
• Developed writing, medicine, architecture, and a trading network
• Built pyramids as burial sites for pharaohs
• Significant achievements in farming, mining, and military defense

The Middle Ages (5th-15th centuries)

• Split into Early, High, and Late Middle Ages
• Early: Social and political changes post-Roman Empire
• High: Population growth, technological advances, Crusades, feudalism
• Late: Black Death, church controversy, heresy

The Renaissance

• Post-Middle Ages period of cultural transformation
• Advances in science, education, politics, and art
• Notable figures: Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci
• Advances in printing essential to spreading ideas

Declaration of Independence (1776)

• Adopted by Continental Congress on July 4, 1776
• Declared American colonies independent from Britain
• Influenced by John Locke’s ideas on natural rights
• Asserted individual rights over state obligations

The Bill of Rights

• First 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution
• Compromise between Federalists and Anti-Federalists
• Key Amendments:
  • First Amendment: Freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly, petition
  • Second Amendment: Right to bear arms
  • Third Amendment: Protection from quartering soldiers
  • Fourth Amendment: Protection from unreasonable search and seizure
  • Fifth Amendment: Due process, protection from double jeopardy, self-incrimination
  • Sixth Amendment: Right to a speedy, public trial by an impartial jury
  • Seventh Amendment: Right to a civil trial by jury
  • Eighth Amendment: Protection from cruel and unusual punishment, excessive fines and bail
  • Ninth Amendment: Preserves rights not mentioned
  • Tenth Amendment: Reserves rights to states and individuals

Geographical Features

• Plateaus: Elevated, flat on top; some are very dry
• Deserts: Receive less than 10 inches of rain per year
• Deltas: Fertile areas at river mouths
• Mesas: Flat, steep-sided mountains or hills
• Basins: Low elevation areas where rivers drain
• Foothills: Transition area between plains and mountains
• Marshes and Swamps: Wet lowlands with vegetation like reeds and rushes