AP Human Geography Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Key Concepts

• Space: Geometric surface of the Earth.
  • Objects defined by location, separated by distance.
  • Activity space: Area where daily activity occurs.
• Place: Bounded space of human importance.
  • Toponym: Place-name assigned when human importance recognized.
  • Places change over time; sequent occupancy: cultural succession history.
• Scale: Relationship of an object/place to Earth.
  • Map scale: Ratio distance on map to real world.
  • Relative scale: Level of aggregation for examination.

Regions

• Categorized as formal, functional, vernacular.
• Formal regions: Bounded space with uniformity.
• Functional regions: Areas with a central node.
• Vernacular regions: Based on perception of residents.

Location

• Absolute location: Coordinates like latitude/longitude.
• Relative location: Compared to known place/geographic feature.

Spatial Interactions

• Central Places: Nodes of human activity.
• Core and Periphery: Relationship in regional, cultural, economic phenomena.

Pattern

• Cluster: Grouped together on surface.
• Agglomeration: Purposeful clustering around a central point.

Density

• Arithmetic density: Number per square unit of distance.
• Physiologic density: People per square unit of arable land.

Diffusion Patterns

• Expansion diffusion: Originates in central place, expanding outward.
• Hierarchical diffusion: Moves from first-order to lower orders.

Geographic Tools

• Topographic maps: Show elevation contours and landscape features.
• Thematic maps: Express specific subjects/themes.

Projections

• Equal-area projections: Maintain relative spatial areas.
• Conformal projections: Maintain shape of polygons.

Models

• Gravity model: Mathematical model for spatial analysis.
• Demographic transition models: Non-spatial; use population data.

Geographic Technology

• GIS: Spatial analysis and mapping with data layers.
• GPS: Uses satellite network for location determination.

Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns & Processes

Key Concepts

Basic Population Statistics

• Birth rate/natality: Crude birth rate (CBR), annual statistic.
• Death rate/mortality rate: Crude death rate (CDR).
• Rate of natural increase (RNI): Birth rate minus death rate.
• Doubling Time: Time to double in size, using RNI.
• Net Migration Rate (NMR): Immigrants minus emigrants.
• Total fertility rate (TFR): Average number of children per woman.

Models

• Demographic transition model (DTM): Population changes over time.
• Epidemiological transition model (ETM): Development due to medical advances.
• Malthusian Theory: Population could exceed food production.

Migration

• Migrants: Voluntarily move locations.
• Interregional migrants: Move within the same country.
• Transnational migration: Move between countries.

Push and Pull Factors

• Push factors: Take people away from a location.
• Pull factors: Attract people to a location.

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns & Processes

Key Concepts

Culture

• Shared experience, traits, and activities of a group.
• Cultural synthesis: Blending of multiple cultural influences.

Architecture

• Modern/contemporary: Innovative designs.
• Traditional architecture: Incorporates local cultural influences.

Language

• Monolingual: Knowing one language.
• Lingua franca: Bridge language between different native languages.

Religion

• Universalizing religions: Accept followers from all ethnicities.
• Ethnic religions: Confined to specific culture group members.

Race and Ethnicity

• Race: Physical characteristics of common genetic heritage.
• Ethnicity: Mix of genetic heritage and political allegiance.

Cultural Change

• Acculturation/Assimilation: Adapting to or fully adopting another culture.

Unit 4: Political Patterns & Processes

Key Concepts

Political Organization

• Country, Nation, State, Nation-state: Different political and cultural entities.
• Sovereignty: Independence from outside control.

Organizations of States

• Federal states: Central government with regional governments.
• Unitary system: Single centralized government.

Multi-State Organizations

• Supranationalism: States aligned for common purpose.
• EU: Example of a successful multi-state organization.

Boundary Concepts

• Political boundaries: Clear and definable.
• Enclave/Exclave: Cultural/territorial separations.

Geopolitics

• Centripetal/Centrifugal forces: Hold together/tear apart state fabric.

Unit 5: Agricultural and Rural Land Use Patterns and Processes

Key Concepts

Agriculture

• Primary economy: Includes agriculture, mining, etc.
• Intensive/Extensive agriculture: Varies in labor input and land use.

Human Ecology

• Human-environment interactions: Forestry, fisheries, regulation.

Farming Practices

• Crop rotation: Different crops on a plot in subsequent years.
• Intensive/Extensive subsistence agriculture: Varies in labor inputs.

Agricultural Revolutions

• First Agricultural Revolution: Domestication of plants/animals.
• Second Agricultural Revolution: Technological advances.
• Third Agricultural Revolution: Internationalization of industrialized farming.

Global Systems of Agriculture

• Commodity chains: Links from producers to consumers.
• Fair trade movement: Ensures fair prices for producers.

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land Use Patterns and Processes

Key Concepts

Urban Theories

• Central place theory: Market areas focus on central settlement.
• Threshold and Range: Determines business support by population size/distance.

Settlement Patterns

• Clustered/Dispersed settlements: Arrangement of homes and farms.

Housing and Environment

• Built environment: Structures and facilities in an area.

Models

• Concentric Zone Model: Urban structure based on rings.
• Sector Model: Combines industrial corridors and neighborhood.
• Latin American City Model: Urban landscapes in international locations.

Urban Society

• Gentrification: Economic reinvestment into existing real estate.
• Urban sustainability: Balancing economic and environmental needs.

Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Patterns and Processes

Key Concepts

Economic Sectors

• Primary, Secondary, Tertiary production: Different stages of production.
• Quaternary/Quinary production: Services and high-tech industries.

Development Levels

• First, Second, Third World: Categorization based on economic development.
• Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs): Shift towards manufacturing.

Industrial Revolution

• Impacts: Technological advancements and population distribution.

Measures of Development

• GDP, GNI, HDI, Gini coefficient: Indicators of economic performance.

Key Theories

• Rostow's Stages of Growth: Economic development stages.
• Dependency Theory: LDC dependency on MDCs.
• Wallerstein's World Systems Theory: Core, semi-periphery, periphery nations.

Industrial Location Theory

• Weight-losing/Gaining Industries: Proximity to resources vs. consumers.

Women in Development

• Gender roles changing: More women in workforce globally.

Know the Maps

• Industrial Regions: North America, Europe, Asia.