Okay, so today we will be discussing the Industrial Revolution for this course. So, the Industrial Revolution, we get that name. They term it that to parallel it to the French Revolution to kind of make that connection there.
The chief components of the Industrial Revolution are industrialization, so moving from manpower to machine power, and urbanization. moving from rural areas to the city, this rise in cities. And those are long-term processes that have continued into the present today.
This begins in England in the 1770s and 1780s within your textile manufacturing, and it then spreads across the continent. In the 1830s and 1840s, we see a sudden acceleration in industrialization where governments are encouraging railroad construction. and you have the mechanization of manufacturing.
So again, things are starting to be made by machines. The states, though, while they're encouraging this, are actually exercising very little control. And that led some to worry that unchecked growth would destroy those traditional social relationships and create disorder.
Some even held out that rural life is the antidote. to these tensions, but population growth creates tensions in the countryside as well. So it's not free of any of these issues either. So our origins for the Industrial Revolution, again, starting in England, you have James Watt creating an efficient steam engine in 1776 that's used to pump water from coal mines or drive the machinery and textile factories.
And what you get is it leading to more innovations in the textile industry. In the 1780s, also Edmund Cartwright designs a mechanized loom that can be run by a small boy. Yet it yields 15 times the amount of output of a skilled adult that would be working a hand loom.
So by the end of the 18th century, manufacturers are assembling new power machinery in large factories that would hire these semi-skilled men. women and children to replace skilled weavers. So no longer are these people that used to have high skill and can make money and have an income. They're not needed anymore. A machine can do what they were doing much more efficiently and in much larger numbers.
So why England? So there's a bunch of factors contributing to why we see this happening in England. For one, The population had increased by more than 50% in the second half of the 18th century.
So in England, manufacturers had an incentive to produce more and cheaper cotton cloth. They also had a really good supply of private investment from capital, from the overseas trade and commercial profits. So also the agricultural revolution of the 18th century that enabled England to produce.
food more efficiently. And because now they need less workers, those workers are now free to move to these new sites of manufacturing. England also had ready access to raw cotton from the colonies in the U.S.
And they also had a really big abundance of natural resources at home as well, including a huge access to of coal and iron. So in Europe, We get textile manufacturing expanding as well, even without the introduction of new machines and factories at the start. So we get the putting out system or the domestic system where manufacturers would bring the materials, supply the materials to the people at home. They would make the product within their home and then they would return it to sell for a profit.
The problem in these systems is that there were very few protections if the market fluctuated. So if one moment the product was worth a lot and you were doing well, that's great. But if it bottoms out, there's nothing to protect you against that. So what you have happened is hundreds of thousands of families might be reduced to bankruptcy in periods of either food shortage or overproduction. And so you start to see a resistance.
two factories. which is putting those skilled workers out of work. In 1811 and 1812, you get a group formed called the Luddites. They would go in and wreck factory machinery and burned these places in the Midlands, Yorkshire, and Lancashire.
So to restore order to keep them from doing this, you have the government sending an army of 12,000 regular soldiers, and they made machine wrecking punishable by death which is just yeah this is how big of a problem it was that the government was taking it that seriously um the luddites get their name from a fictional figure ned ludd whose signature we have up here on manifestos um but he was not an actual person so think of like a pen name i mean we still have the term luddites used today really predominantly in england For those who resist new technology. So you learn a new phrase. And if you can hear weird breathing or noises, my cats are being very clingy today. So we get with the Industrial Revolution, probably the biggest thing people think of when they think of the Industrial Revolution, especially with England, is the railroad. So you get this new form of railroad within the 1820s.
George Stevenson perfected an engine to pull wagons along rail tracks. and by the 1830s and 40s every major country in europe had is hurrying to set up this railroad system and that will push industry from the east to the west um i mean from the west to the east sorry this shapes your working glass so the railroad is not new we had had iron tracks laid since the 17th century for horses to pull coal from mines and wagons in fact that's where we get the term horsepower how many horses does it actually take to pull a load or hit a certain speed with a load. And so as a mode of transport, you get that Stevenson steam-powered locomotive replacing the horses. Britain's also building railroads in India, and its success is leading others to develop their own projects.
So for example, in 1835, Belgium opened the first continental European railroad with state bonds backed by British capital. And by 1850, the world had 23,500 miles of track. Most of that's in Western Europe, with 9,000 miles being the United States, which if you think about the size of the United States compared to Western Europe, that's already numerically less. It's even less when you think about geographically how much more land there is in the United States. So the U.S. really does lag behind.
And you see that today even where... We just don't have the train transportation that you see in Europe. So railroad building is spurring both industrial development and state power. It's depending on private and state funds to pay for that massive amount of iron, coal, and heavy machinery it's using and also the human labor it takes to build it.
You also get the demand for that iron. production accelerate the industrial revolution. It is overtaking your agrarian growth of cotton. And so those engines make Britain the world leader in manufacturing.
And by the mid-century, more than half of the British national income comes from manufacturing and trade. German output during the 1840s grows sixfold, but it's still only about 25% of the British figure. And what we get is coal and iron is only 6-7% of British output. So in contrast, Eastern Europe is growing very slowly, mainly because serfdom is still surviving there.
And as long as they're legally those serfs, so serfdom like slavery, but they are tied to the land. They are not the property themselves. But they are not allowed to move off the land they are tied to. So they can't migrate to new factory towns.
And their landlords don't really feel any need to invest in it. income in manufacturing so you just don't see this growth in Eastern Europe it's probably the worst in Russia for a bunch of reasons already stated and also it's just not the weather is not you know conducive to trains at the start until they really figure out how to deal with the snow and ice so we get factories changing work life New workers are coming from several sources, so families or farmers who could not provide land. for all their children. You also have artisans displaced by machinery and the actual children of the earliest workers.
Work days during this time became were very long. 12 to 17 hours was typical even for children and you get workers gradually coming to constitute a new socio-economic class with a very distinctive culture and tradition because they are working such long hours that when they're off how they spend their very little free time, is very different than what we see with other classes. So the working class, like the term middle class, comes into use for the first time in the early 19th century, and it is referring to those laborers in the new factories. And what's really interesting about the Industrial Revolution is it creates these unheard riches, like we've never seen wealth like this before, but it also has new forms of poverty all at once, where we've never seen people this poor, because before, even if you were a peasant, You had the ability to farm and grow food for your family.
You might not be making any money, but you've got food to live off of. You've got the land and resources to, you know, provide yourself a shelter. It might not be fancy, but you've got shelter.
You can provide yourself with what you need to survive. Now with these people in the cities, they no longer have the stuff. They need to make money to buy these things. And they're not making any money, enough money to do that.
And so you get this horrible gap between the rich and the poor. And there's also no thought to pollution or resources, which brings us to our next slide, urbanization and its consequences. So the growth of towns and cities due to the movement of people from rural and urban areas, you get Britain again leading the way 50%.
50%. of the population in England and Wales is living in town. In France and German states, you only have about 25% of the population urbanized.
This is still a rapid influx, though, and that rapid influx of people causes overcrowding in the cities. And again, the wages are not high enough for many workers to afford the rent in these cities. So because these owners know, the factory owners know, okay, you won't accept that I'm paying you two cent an hour.
But the guy behind you is desperate enough that he will. So whatever, take it or leave it. And they can pay them whatever they want to. There's no minimum wage laws. So we get overcrowding happening.
For example, in Paris, there's 30,000 workers who lived in lodging houses. And there would be eight to nine people to a room with no separation between the sexes. So females and males.
And in 1847 in St. Giles, London. 460 people are living in just 12 houses which is insane there's no money i mean they they don't have money to even have decent living there's no money for fuel either so they're huddling together for warmth on piles of rotting straw or potato peels um and with that obviously you can see there's these dire sanitation conditions residents are dumping their waste into the streets there's not really septic tanks um you get human excrement. You know, for those who were fortunate, there were cesspools under apartment houses where it was collected, but a lot are just dumping their chamber pots out of the window into the road.
So 1850, London had 250,000 cesspools, but they only emptied them once or twice a year, and they're emptying those into the river, which is absolutely disgusting. Water is very scarce as well. Paris had...
the most public fountains of any city but they're still only enough for two baths a year for each person this is why we have a bridal bouquet and flowers are so big at weddings um they started out as a way to cover the body odor of the people involved um so london um their public fountains the private companies in your poorer districts only would turn the water fountains on for few hours three days a week and with this we get massive outbreaks of cholera and massive death. You also see that rising population and an increased demand for food changing things in the countryside as well. Forests are chopped down with no thought, marshes are drained to increase farming capacity and also England that had had coppen land where anyone could use it to grow food or graze, you know, herds of animals.
Those are now private property with the power remaining in the hands of the traditional elite. And they're demanding a greater yield without making improvements to enhance productivity. So that's causing issues. They're also controlling political assemblies and they're personally selecting local officials.
So you get this growing. awareness of all of these social disparities, whether it be in the cities or even in the rural areas, the countryside, that awareness is threatening social and political order in Western Europe in the 1830s and 1840s. And so what are some things we see come out of this? So there's this idea of how to reform the social order. So they're relying on women, but the question, it becomes a question of just what their...
women's proper role is. Should they worry about reform in the world or should they only be worried about their own domestic spaces in the sense of like raise your children in a different way in order to then impact society? We get a lot of artists and writers and all out of this.
So you see them reflecting this widely shared concern about social changes arising from industrialization urbanization going throughout all of this art and literature within art we get romanticism where they're glorifying nature and rejecting urban growth as you can see in the painting on the slide Frankenstein is considered a romanticist novel for this period because it's this idea of how far should we really be pushing science and how much do we need to just let nature be nature um you get poets such as elizabeth barrett browning also denouncing child labor um architecture starts to be reminiscent of the gothic style the medieval to kind of you know again turn back to those previous times they're longing for and again these landscapes and art are just prevalent prevalent or prevalent. I can't speak, sorry. We also get increased literacy at the time is giving rise, um, novels a larger reading public.
So unlike fiction of the 18th century, which focused on individual personalities, novels of the 1830s and 40s are specializing in portrayals of social life in all of its varieties. So we get Charles Dickens, um, in the 1820, uh, who was alive 1812 to 1870. His father was actually in prison for debt in 1820. and he took a job in a shoe polish factory. So he is living and seeing these changes. In 1836, he publishes a series of literary sketches of daily life in London, and then producing a series of novel that's paying close attention to that distressing effect of industrialization and urbanization.
You see, if you've read Dickens, you can definitely make that connection. It is throughout all of his novels. which is why they're so important.
It gives us a glimpse on the commentary and the sentiment of industrialization and that growing gap between the rich and the poor during this time. But Dickens didn't just write, he also ran charitable organizations and pressed for social reforms as well. Another famous author we get during this time is Charlotte Bronte, who wrote Jane Eyre in 1847, and this novel lets us understand her description of women's situations during this time and how restricted and restrained they were compared to men.
So with more and more artists taking on social interests, you have an explosion of culture during this period. Museums are open to the public across Europe and middle classes start to collect art, something that we didn't have in middle class before. You were either nobility and wealthy and had art and were, you know, sponsoring artists. Or you were a peasant just trying to scrape by, but now you have this new middle class that can start to buy things that they don't, beyond what they need to live.
You also get an audience for print culture, so books, periodicals, newspapers, as people are learning, more and more people are learning to read. And you get 30 or 40 private lending libraries offering books in Berlin in the 1830s. And at the same time as your literacy is rising. we have photography emerging as well. So we've kind of looked at the culture within this idea of reform, but what reforms are actually going on and what kind of types of reforms?
So we have several varieties. We get a religious impulse for social reform, but they've got to overcome this perceived indifference from the working class. both protestant and catholic christian clergy are complaining that workers have no interest in religion less than 10 percent of workers in cities attend religious services and again you have to think back to the fact that they are working 12 to 17 hours a day there's only 24 hours in a day so um and they don't get sunday off most of them are working through the whole week uh and so there's a reason why they're not in church but they're then you have these reformists within the church trying to figure out how to get them back um so to combat that british religious groups launched sunday school movements that reached their peak in the 1840s but so by 1851 more than half of all working-class children ages 5 through 15 were attending sunday school events even though parents didn't really go to church services because parents thought this was really important for their children because it gave them an opportunity to read and parents were strongly believing that if their children learned to read and had an education um this would help them escape the factories when they become adults so these sunday schools are teaching children to read at a time when few working-class children could go to school during the week because they were having to work to help provide for their family and you get um women taking a larger role as well so in catholic religious orders by 1850 they're enrolling more women than men and they're running schools hospitals leper colonies insane asylums and old age homes as they were all called at the time and the catholic church is also establishing new orders especially for women and they're increasing missionary activity overseas sorry i'm still getting over being sick so protestant women in great britain in the united states are establishing um bible missionary and female reform societies by the hundreds so chief among concerns for them were prostitution which is where we get things like the boston female reform society so um a quote-unquote fallen woman could enter this program so to speak and once she leaves it, once she completes it, where she was previously shunned from society, she can now re-enter and hopefully find a suitable husband and have a productive life.
Catholics and Protestants are both promoting temperance movements, so against alcohol, because working class is working so much. A lot of times after work, their only kind of break is to go down to the pub and have a pint. And so drinking becomes increasingly viewed as this poor vice that they're gripped in.
You can see in the image this idea of one drink is this and two drinks this. And now all of a sudden it ends in death. So the first societies appear in the U.S. as early as 1813 and 1835. You get the American Temperance Society claim 1.4. five million members. And they, again, are seeing drunkenness as a sign of moral weakness and point to a loss of workers'productivity.
And it's more reflecting middle and upper class fear of lower classes than reality. However, you get it also attracting working class people who want to be considered respectable, that if they'll join these movements and they'll get to be. rub elbows with these people and be in quote-unquote respectable society.
So beyond religious reforms, we also have educational reforms. Education, again, being the main prospect of uplifting the poor and the working class, just like those parents sending their children to Sunday school were thinking. So you have secular schools such as mechanics institutes to educate workers in big cities. And in 1833, You also have the French government passing an education law that requires every town to maintain a primary school, pay a teacher, and provide a free education to poor boys.
Girl schools were optional for the towns to have open, even though you have hundreds of women teaching at the primary level. Most of them are in private, often religious schools. Still, even with these schools required in every town, only 1 out of 30... boys attended school in France and Prussia is much more successful.
By 1835 they have 75% of their children in schools. So, and also keep in mind Prussia is not related to Russia. Prussia would be what we think of as Germany. So, um, in your underdeveloped Eastern countries, um, or education is underdeveloped in your Eastern countries, especially Russia, because Nicholas I is blaming that December's revolt on, um, education.
So with this, um, and these pushes for reform, you also get private charities, but when they, so you out of these religious movements and educational movements. But when they fail to meet the needs of the poor, the governments do start to intervene. So the British seek to control cost of public welfare by passing a new poor law in 1834. Critics of this law call it the Starvation Act, and it required all able-bodied persons receiving relief to be housed together in a workhouse.
But husbands would be separated from wives, and parents were separated from children. And the idea is that it's the absolute distress they would go through by being separated would force poor people to move on to regions of higher employment, that they wouldn't stay in that area and they would try harder to find better work, which was pretty messed up. It got a lot of criticism. So.
How are things changing with women? We see women being part of the push for change, but there are also things that are changing for women as well. So women view charitable work as an extension of domestic duties where they're promoting virtuous behavior and morality and efforts to improve society.
Laws are also codifying the subordination of women where, for example, the Napoleonic Code classified married women as legal incompetence. the same class as children, the insane, and criminals. Britain, they did not have national law code, but their courts did uphold the legality of a husband's complete control over his wife. For example, a court ruled in 1840, quote, There can be no doubt of the general dominion which the law of England attributes to the husband over the wife, end quote.
Most countries during this time define them as perpetual minors, women as perpetual minors, perpetual children. under paternal control, whether that be their father, their brother, or their husband. And you see this distinction the most in private classes or privileged classes. For example, in fashion, during this time period, men's fashion is turning more and more practical.
They're no longer wearing the stockings and wigs with heels. wearing long trousers and shorter jackets with dark colors so they don't show dirt from the industrial revolution. Men no longer wearing makeup, which before was very common.
And again, instead of these fancy elaborate wigs, men are simply having very simple haircuts. Women's fashion, though, continues to be very decorative. Now you get that image.
Victorian image of very tightly corseted waist. Their hair is longer and longer, which takes hours to style, and their skirts are very long, which pretty much gives them incentives to stay in the home because you wouldn't want to wear those skirts out in the streets of the city. Scientists are also reinforcing these stereotypes.
Women who were once considered sexually insatiable are now described as incapacitated by menstruation and largely uninterested in sex to give them this kind of moral superiority. However, this Victorian woman was largely a figment of the male imagination. As we know of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and their letters, she was definitely not shy in the bedroom and most women weren't. This was something that men were projecting onto them.
Physicians and scholars are also considering women mentally inferior and didn't view them as at all being able to really contribute educationally or politically or anything like that within society. You see less of this differentiation between sexes in the working class. It's not particularly that they don't agree that women are inferior or different, but it's that they don't have time to put in the extra effort to keep their spheres separate. And so you see a lot more blending of men and women in the working classes. Which brings us to our last slide about abuse and reform happening overseas.
So during this time, we see colonialism become imperialism. Imperialism is a word that came into our language in the 19th century. And Europe is turning interest away from the Caribbean colonies into new colonies in Asia and Africa. So what we see that's different is colonialism was, it led to the establishment of settler colonies.
There was direct rule by Europeans. You get the introduction of slave labor from Africa and wholesale destruction of indigenous population. In contrast, imperialism.
means much more indirect forms of economic exploitation and political rule. Europeans are not trying to live there. They're just trying to strip them of their resources. So they're still profiting from those colonies, but they now also aim to reform colonial people in their own image. Again, they're not trying to live there.
They're trying to make the people the same as them. So you see that colonialism rise and fall with slavery. British religious groups during this time continued to condemn the conquest, enslavement, and exploitation of native African populations and they successfully blocked British annexations in central and southern Africa in the 1830s. By 1833, British reformers finally abolished slavery in the British empire with anti-slavery petitions bearing over 1.5 million signatures. So this was huge.
abolitionists have been around since the Enlightenment. I mean, the minute slavery was created, chattel slavery, it was discussed the morality of it if it was something that was justifiable. And you see already by the early 1800s, a lot of these places are abolishing it or pushing for the abolishment of slavery.
In France, the new government of Louis-Philippe takes very strong measures against clandestine slave traffic. and virtually ends French participation during the 1830s, formally abolishing slavery in 1848. Despite the abolition of slavery, Britain and France had not lost interest in their colonies overseas. So using the pretext of an insult to its envoy, France invades Algeria in 1830, and after a long military campaign, they establish political control of most of the country in the next two decades.
By 1848, they're encouraging confiscation of lands, and that same year, the French government incorporates Algeria as part of France. They are forcing assimilation or imposing assimilation of the native population into French culture, but they're not very successful. Britain, on the other hand, grants Canada's greater self-determination in 1839. However, they do this because they know they're extending their dominion elsewhere, and you see this when they had already annexed Singapore in 1819 and then they annexed New Zealand in 1840. They're also increasing control in India through the administration of the East India Company or the EIC which is a private group of merchants chartered by the British crown and you get them educating the native elite to take over much of business and use natives to augment military control.
So you actually have Indian sepoys, who were native Indians, being the military the British are using to keep control over India. By 1850, only one in six soldiers serving the British in India was European. So, a massive amount of Indians in the army helping the British keep control. So, you also try to, they also try to establish regular trade with China and opium. Opium had long been known for its medicinal uses, but increasingly people are getting addicted to it, specifically within China, where they're increasingly buying it as a recreational drug instead of medicine.
I mean, we still use, that's what opioids are today. So it's still known for medicinal purposes, particularly with pain management. But we know now it has to be very monitored.
It is very easy for people to get dependent on it. And that's what was happening in China. So the Chinese government notices this, and they forbid Western merchants to visit outside of the southern city of Guangzhou, which is now Canton.
And they ban the import of opium, but those measures failed. What the British do is they start smuggling and bribing. And these British traders set up flourishing markets.
And by the... mid-1830s, they're pressuring the British government to force an expanded opium trade on the Chinese. So those merchants are pushing the British government to force more and more opium into China.
Chinese authorities kick the British merchants out from China in 1839. They don't want more of this drug. They do not want more people in China addicted to this drug. But the British retaliate by bombarding Chinese coastal cities.
You have the Opium War, as it's called, and in 1842 with a British victory. They dictate to the defeated China the Treaty of Nanjing. And in that treaty, they open four more Chinese ports to Europeans. The British took sovereignty over the island of Hong Kong. They received substantial war indemnities.
And it assures that the British will be continued to be allowed to import opium into China. despite China not wanting the drug brought into their country. And what all of these things we see happening, like in Algeria, like with India, with the opium wars in China, is that that reform that you see happening in Europe takes a backseat to economic interest. And you do get religious groups within Britain complaining about these things. But...
The government is worried about economic gain. The wealthy are worried about economic gain. And where there is this opportunity for profit, they'll put those push for reforms on the back burner.
And so what you have now is with this, intellectuals begin to look for more systematic solutions. So solutions that they can push through within the government, within the state, to the social problems occurring during this time. So that wraps us up on the Industrial Revolution. There is only one lecture for this module.
I hope you all have a great week and good luck on your midterm.