Research Methods
“Explain/describe the use of one research method in…” (9 marks)
“Discuss the use of research methods used in the biological approach” (22 marks)
* Experiments
* Case studies
* Interviews
* Questionnaire
* Observations
The individual and the group
*Two RM for each topic
Strengths and weaknesses of RM
Supporting Study
How was the RM used to study the behaviour?
Why was the RM used to study the behavior? How was the RM used effectively in the study?
RM #1
Experiment
Strict controls and procedures mean other researchers can easily complete the lab experiment and check for reliability
High control over extraneous variables implies cause and effect relationships can be studied without any influence from unwanted variables.
The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real-life setting.
Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.
Bandura
Do for me!
Do for me !
RM #2
Charlton
Natural experiment
Great ecological validity
Great generalisability.
We can assume there is less bias from sampling (participants do not have to be brought into the lab) and demand characteristics (if subjects are unaware they are being tested)
The cause and effect relationship of the IV and DV can be more easily affected by confounding variables.
Participants cannot be randomly allocated to the experimental or controlled condition.
Charlton
used the introduction of to to st. Helena I order to study the behaviour of children
Instead of manipulating the iv since it was already natural;y occurring they used observations
no direct manipulation by the researcher
Individualistic and collectiovist
this meant that all the behaviour observed was in a real life setting and resulted in high mundane realism/ ecological validity.
This ensures that no bias from the observers could have been translated into results allowing for the retention of objectivity.
No influence by experimenters allowed for a true display of behaviour —> this means that the behaviour displayed may translate to other kids.
Cultural origins of behaviour and cognition
*Two RM for each topic
Strengths and weaknesses of RM (questionnaire)
Supporting Study
How was the RM used to study the behavior?
Why was the RM used to study the behavior? How was the RM used effectively in the study?
RM #1
Questionnaire + surveys/ self-reported data
Cheap to run
Ethical as participants can choose whether to take part
Open questions are more valid as they are in-depth
The use of closed questions and a Likert scale produce quantitative data which is reliable because it is easy to compare responses.
The participant may not answer truthfully (socially desirable responses)
The use of closed questions and a Likert scale produce quantitative data which lacks validity because it lacks detail.
Some participants may not respond to all questions which reduces the validity of the data.
Wei et al
questions related to work place behaviour + evironemnt
Allowed for participants to share their view points on the work
Questionnnaires were designed to asses preference for teamwork, group dynamics and outcome expectations.
Participants completed the questionnaires at different times over the whole period of the study
this allowed for researchers to gather data on the behaviours of individuals with power and how their culture affected the way they interacted with their teams
This allowed researchers to gather data on how cultures can have both positive and negative effects on team motivation and dynamics.
This allowed for them to gain a holistic view on how culture plays a role in both work behaviour and wok dynamics.
This allowed the researchers to capture changes in behaviours overtime and allowed for them to understand how the values of different cultures also has an effect on how well people work and perform alongside each other.
RM #2
experiment
Strict controls and procedures mean other researchers can easily complete the lab experiment and check for reliability
High control over extraneous variables implies cause and effect relationships can be studied without any influence from unwanted variables.
The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behaviour that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real-life setting.
Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding variables.
Berry 1967 - reproduction of Asche's experiments
focused on conformity writhing cultures
High control over variables in the experiment - ie
They used three distinctly different cultures
Experimenters was able to intervene and influence participants to see if they would change their answers based on if the experiment indicated what others in their culture had chosen as answers.
Used a large sample size which similar numbers in each culture
allowed us to see how the values of collectivist and individualistic cultures vary in terms of the importance they place on group/social harmony.
This allows us to draw conclusion of the individualistic vs collectivist culture views based on cultural dimensions- the. Only different variable- the conformity rates could not have been influenced by anything but the IV - the different cultures.
Could see whether people in different cultures individual place importance on group harmony or not.
Decreases margin of error and also makes the findings more generalisable to people in varied collectivist and individualistic cultures.
Cultural influences on individual behaviour
*Two RM for each topic
Strengths and weaknesses of RM
Supporting Study
How was the RM used to study the behavior?
Why was the RM used to study the behavior? How was the RM used effectively in the study?
RM #1- interviews(acculturation)
Can include both closed and open questions which allow for the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data analysis and a more holistic approach to discovering explanations for behaviour
Can gather the information that lab experiments cannot link to the experience ANd emotions of the participants to better understand the ease in which behaviour may be displayed
Can gather an in-depth understanding of behaviour and why it occurs instead of just recognizing and associating variables.
Some interviews may require training people to conduct interviews.
Some interviews don’t allow the interviewer to deviate from the pre-set questions restricting the depth and content of the information that comes their way.
Time-consuming to set up and gather participants
Often leads to social desirability bias which leads to results which are not true representations of the behaviour being studied
Luek and wilson
carried out semi-structured interviews
Interviews were used to measure the level of acculturative stress
They also measured the impacts of language proficiently,language preference,discrimination socioeconomic status etc
Randomly selected samples of pts were contacted Rio validate the data taken form the interviews
This allowed researchers to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. And it also allowed participants to expand on their ideas of how they felt as they were starting to adjust to the new culture.
This would allow researchers to understand how participants were coping with adjusting to a new culture
This would allow them too understand how these variables changed the level of stress individuals experienced whilst adjusting to the new culture.
Ensured that answers were consistent which increased both the reliability the validity of the study
RM #2
Enculturation
observation
Observations can be qualitative, which means that only the lack or presence of a property is noted, or quantitative, which means that a numerical value is assigned to the observed phenomenon by counting or measuring it.
The observation approach entails paying attention to, feeling, documenting, and observing the actions, attitudes, and traits of things, phenomena, or living things. The researchers employ this technique to comprehend the subject's behaviour and personality.
Observes behaviour in a natural setting this means that they may accurately be able to identify behaviours and how they occur on a daily /regular basis and in normal (ot controlled)environments.
--more realistic outlook on behaviour and affecting factors that may influence behaviour.
This may lead to participants modifying their behaviour if they are aware they are being observed to look better, this means that the behaviour observed is not what really occurs in life when no body is paying attention- which leads to inaccurate analysis and conclusion on the factor that affect b=certain displays of behaviour
Fagot 1978
two observers were used
Used an observation checklist
There were 60 minute observations completed for each family over five weeks
Observations also included behaviour that may have indicated neutral responses
ensure that behaviour recognized had to be consistent between the two establishing inter-coder reliability.
This allowed researchers to recognized target behaviours which could indicate a positive or negative response form parents.
Multiple families, which were inclusive of different family dynamics and expectations as well as the ability to generalise to families of varied socio-economic status
This meant that they recognized that some responses from the parents, were either unrelated to to the aims of the study which helped maintain the validity of the study or because the reactions to the same behaviour did not differ with the gender of the child.
How you would write this essay:
1. Introduction - which RM are more common in this topic/approach? Why is it difficult to use/not use certain RM in this topic/approach?
2. RM #1
→ characteristics of this RM
→ overall strengths and weaknesses of this RM
3. Supporting study #1
4. Explain how was the RM used to study the behavior, why was the RM used to study the behavior? How was the RM used effectively in the study?
5. RM #2
→ characteristics of this RM
→ overall strengths and weaknesses of this RM
6. Supporting study #2
7. Explain how was the RM used to study the behavior, why was the RM used to study the behavior? How was the RM used effectively in the study?
8. Conclusion
→ any overall evaluation points you want to make about both RM/both studies
Ethical Considerations
“Explain/describe the use of one ethical consideration in…” (9 marks)
“Discuss the use of ethical considerations used in the biological approach” (22 marks)
Individual and the group
What are the ethical considerations in the study?
Discuss the use of ethics
→ Were the ethical considerations necessary?
→ Any other ethics that could’ve been applied?
Study 1- bandura
* informed consent
* Protection from harm
* Confidentiality
* Right to withdraw
protection from harm as exposing children to aggressive behaviour may negative long- term effects on their behaviour.
It also subjected kids to mental harm, which touches on the issue of safety and also violates basic psychological ethical standards.
Bandura’s paperwork suggests that consent was only obtained form the teachers or the children and not legal guardians
Children who I were participating in the experiment were not old enough to understand that they had a right to withdraw form the study, this means that kids may have been subject to participating against their will which is a breach of ethics.
Confidentiality was breached as many videos and recordings were published and widely circulated
Study 2
Durry
informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
participant willingly participated in the study and no researcher was pressuring participation.
Deception: participants only knew that they would experience a simulation and were unaware of the aim of the study and what was being tested, if they knew, some \participants may not have wanted to participate which is a breach of ethics.
Participants were intentionally set to experience stressful situation which may have had psychological implications.
Cultural origins
What are the ethical considerations in the study?
Discuss the use of ethics
→ Were the ethical considerations necessary?
→ Any other ethics that could’ve been applied?
Study 1
Berry (1967)
informed consent
Deception
Protection from harm
participant willingly participated in the study and were not forced to partcicpate.
Participants were not informed of the true aims of the study in order for participants to truthfully display behaviours however, if participants knew the aims, they may not have wanted to participate
Participants were subject to pressure as an effect of conformity with may have hands negative mental and psychological implications
Study 2
Wei et al
informed consent
Right to withdraw
Protection from harm
all participants were informed of the tasks that thy has to complete which were a series of questionnaire regarding their work dynamics.
All partcicpnats were able to withdraw if they felt uncomforatable. This allowed them the choice to make their own desicions.
No part of the study had any elements which could negatively psychologically harm the participants- since out was only quiestionnaires.
Cultural influences
What are the ethical considerations in the study?
Discuss the use of ethics
→ Were the ethical considerations necessary?
→ Any other ethics that could’ve been applied?
Study 1
Berry 2006- acculturation
confidentiality
Protection from harm
Informed consent
it can be assumed that there was informed consent as the participants were provided with information and the purpose of the study and still chose to participate.
Berry’s study focused on acculturative strategies used by the participants as well as their social and psychological states this may have made participants uncomfortable and upset as these are sensitive topics to those who are adapting to new cultures and environments.
All responses form participants were kept a anonymous ensure that no participants personal responses could be traced to them. This may have provided some emotion and psychological security to/for the participants
Study 2
informed consent
No deception
Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Protection from harm
parents were aware of information about the study including its aims procedure potential risks and benefits that they voluntarily agreed to have their child participate.
No deception was used in the study meaning that researchers were transparent about the nature of the study and didn’t deceive any of the participants.
Participants were given the right to withdraw from the study if ever they felt uncomfortable being observed of just no longer wanted to participate without facing any negative consequences.
Identities of the participants remained confidential. This means that’s researchers took measures to protect the privacy of participants, ensuring that their personal information was not disclosed or distributed without their prior consent.
Results state that there were no mental and physical harm to participants. Suggests that researched=s took steps to ensure the safety of the participants in their study.
How you would write this essay:
1. Introduction - why are ethical considerations necessary in this approach
2. Theory - what are ethical considerations and what do they mean
3. Study 1
4. Discussion of ethical considerations in study 1
→ Were the ethical considerations necessary?
→ Any other ethics that could’ve been applied?
5. Study 2
6. Discussion of ethical considerations in study 2
→ Were the ethical considerations necessary?
→ Any other ethics that could’ve been applied?