Developmental Psychology: Key Concepts and Theories

Early Childhood Period

General Characteristics

• Referred to as the preschool years, spanning ages 2 to 6.
• Important for physical, cognitive, socio-emotional, and language development.
• Experiences during this period are crucial for lifelong learning and health.

Physical Development

• Rapid changes in body control and appearance.
• Ossification process hardens bones.
• Typical growth: 3 inches in height and 4.5 pounds in weight annually.
• Decreased appetite due to slower growth rate.

Motor Development

• Acquisition of basic locomotion and object control skills.
• Improvement in gross and fine motor skills.
• Age-related progression from basic kicking and balancing skills (age 2) to more complex tasks like skipping and using utensils (age 5).

Sleep

• Varied sleep needs from 10-16 hours, decreasing with age.
• Recommendations by the National Sleep Foundation align with developmental stages.

Toilet Training

• Occurs typically between ages 24 and 36 months.
• Girls often train earlier than boys.
• Focus on physical and emotional readiness rather than age.

Health and Nutrition

• Slower growth leads to decreased appetite.
• Importance of establishing healthy eating habits to prevent obesity.
• Economic factors play a role in food security.

Cognitive Development Theories

• Piaget's Preoperational Stage: Ages 2-7; development of symbolic thought, but limited by egocentrism and lack of operations.
• Vygotsky's Theory: Emphasizes social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development. Introduces concepts like the Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding.

Psychosocial Development

• Self-Concept: Developed through interaction; theories by Cooley and Mead about self-perception and social roles.
• Erikson's Initiative vs. Guilt: Encourages taking initiative; requires balance to avoid guilt.
• Gender Identity: Develops through socialization, with theories by Freud and Chodorow.
• Parenting Styles: Baumrind's authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved styles influence development.

Middle and Late Childhood

Puberty

• Marks transition from childhood to adulthood; involves physical, social, and emotional changes.
• Onset varies by individual but typically starts between ages 8-14.

Physical Changes

• Boys and girls experience growth spurts, changes in body composition, and development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Cognitive Development

• Piaget's Formal Operational Stage: Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.
• Elkind's Adolescent Egocentrism: Imaginary audience and personal fable concepts.

Social and Emotional Development

• Erikson's identity vs. role confusion stage.
• Development of moral reasoning (Kohlberg) and identity exploration.
• Increased influence of peers and media.

Adulthood

Physical and Cognitive Changes

• Aging factors include primary (biological) and secondary (lifestyle-related) aging.
• Cognitive abilities peak in early adulthood, with some decline in fluid intelligence over time.

Socioemotional Development

• Erikson's intimacy vs. isolation and generativity vs. stagnation stages.
• Importance of relationships and finding meaning through work and family life.

Challenges and Issues

• Mid-life crises and adjustments to life changes.
• Health issues like menopause and depression.

Old Age

Physical and Cognitive Decline

• Physical changes include decreased muscle strength, vision, and hearing.
• Cognitive decline often involves memory issues and risk of neurocognitive disorders like Alzheimer's.

Socioemotional Changes

• Increased dependency can lead to social isolation or elder abuse.
• Erikson's ego integrity vs. despair stage; importance of reflecting on life accomplishments.

Cultural Perspectives

• Varying perceptions of aging and death across cultures.
• Ageism and its impact on self-esteem and societal roles.