How Memory Functions - Psychology 2e

Learning Objectives

• Discuss the three basic functions of memory.
• Describe the three stages of memory storage.
• Distinguish between procedural and declarative memory, and semantic and episodic memory.

Overview

• Memory functions as an information processing system similar to a computer.
• Key processes: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Encoding

• Definition: Input of information into the memory system.
• Automatic Processing: Encoding of details like time, space, and meaning without conscious awareness.
• Effortful Processing: Requires attention and effort (e.g., studying for a test).
• Effective Encoding: Making information meaningful aids memory encoding.

Types of Encoding

1. Semantic Encoding: Encoding of words and their meanings; deeper level of processing.
2. Visual Encoding: Encoding of images.
3. Acoustic Encoding: Encoding of sounds, especially words.

• Self-reference Effect: Better memory for information related to oneself.

Storage

• Creation of a permanent record of information.
• Atkinson-Shiffrin Model: Memory passes through Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and Long-Term Memory.
• Baddeley and Hitch Model: Includes visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, phonological loop, and central executive.

Memory Stages

1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory events (sights, sounds, tastes).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporary storage, lasting 15-30 seconds.
   • Capacity: 7 ± 2 items; affected by memory trace decay and interference.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): Continuous and potentially unlimited storage of information.

LTM Organization

• Stored in semantic networks based on concepts and associations.
• Spreading Activation: Activation of one concept activates related concepts.

Types of Long-Term Memory

1. Explicit Memory (Declarative): Conscious recollection of information.
   • Episodic Memory: Personal experiences and events.
   • Semantic Memory: Knowledge about words, concepts, and facts.
2. Implicit Memory: Unconscious memories affecting behavior.
   • Procedural Memory: Skills and actions.
   • Priming: Exposure to a stimulus affects responses to future stimuli.
   • Emotional Conditioning: Classically conditioned emotional responses.

Everyday Connection

• Autobiographical Memory: Example of Marilu Henner's hyperthymesia.

Retrieval

• Getting information out of memory storage.

• Methods:

  1. Recall: Access without cues (e.g., essay tests).
  2. Recognition: Identify information after encountering it again (e.g., multiple-choice tests).
  3. Relearning: Learning information previously learned.

• Vital for daily functioning, from basic tasks to complex skills.