AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition - Summary Lecture Notes

Introduction

• Welcome to the Unit 2 summary video for AP Psychology by Mr. Sin.
• Focus on cognition concepts.
• Tips include being active in learning and utilizing study guides and answer keys.

Perception vs. Sensation

• Perception: Interpreting sensory information from the five senses.
• Sensation: Detecting a stimulus via sensory receptors.
• Sensation = raw data; Perception = interpretation.

Types of Processing

• Top-down Processing: Uses prior knowledge to interpret information.
  • Familiar/simple stimuli.
  • Quick but can overlook errors (e.g., proofreader’s illusion).
• Bottom-up Processing: Builds perception from the ground up.
  • Used for unfamiliar/complex stimuli.
  • Takes longer as it does not rely on prior knowledge.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas: Mental frameworks from past experiences aiding perception.
• Perceptual Sets: Mental shortcuts influenced by expectations and emotions.
  • Internal factors: mood, culture, expectations.
  • External factors: environment, professional experiences.

Attention and Selective Perception

• Selective Attention: Focus on particular stimulus while blocking out others.
  • Cocktail Party Effect: Hearing your name in a noisy room.
• Divided Attention Issues:
  • Inattentional blindness: Missing stimuli when attention is elsewhere.
  • Change blindness: Failing to notice environmental changes.

Perception Phenomena

• Apparent Movement: Perceiving motion with no actual movement.
  • Stroboscopic Motion: Series of images shown rapidly.
  • Phi Phenomenon: Lights blinking create motion illusion.
• Induced Movement: Stationary object appears to move due to surrounding motion.
• Auto-kinetic Effect: Stationary points of light seem to move in darkness.

Gestalt Principles

• Figure and Ground: Separation of focus object from background.
• Continuation: Natural eye movement following continuous lines.
• Closure: Brain fills in missing info of familiar objects.
• Similarity: Grouping similar objects as one unit.
• Proximity: Objects close together perceived as one group.
• Symmetry: Symmetrical objects perceived as one.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Use both eyes for depth perception.
  • Convergence: Eye movement inward/outward based on distance.
  • Retinal Disparity: Difference in images between eyes gives depth.
• Monocular Cues: Use one eye for depth on 2D surfaces.
  • Key cues: Relative size, interposition, relative height, shading, texture, linear perspective, motion parallax.

Perceptual Constancy

• Size Constancy: Objects perceived as same size despite distance.
• Color Constancy: Color remains constant despite lighting.
• Shape Constancy: Shape perceived constant despite movement.
• Lightness Constancy: Perception of shading remains constant.

Cognition and Problem Solving

• Concepts: Mental categories for organizing information.
• Prototypes: Typical examples of a concept.
• Schemas: Complex frameworks for interpreting information.
  • Assimilation: Fitting new info into existing schema.
  • Accommodation: Altering schema for new info.

Executive Functions

• Includes planning, organizing, critical thinking.
• Problem Solving Approaches:
  • Algorithms: Step-by-step problem solving.
  • Heuristics: Mental shortcuts, less accurate.

Decision-Making Influences

• Mental Sets: Using past strategies for new problems.
• Priming: Past stimuli influence response to new stimuli.
  • Repetition Priming: Recognize repeated stimuli faster.
  • Semantic Priming: Related words influence interpretation.
• Framing: Presentation affects interpretation and decisions.

Creativity

• Divergent Thinking: Exploring multiple solutions.
• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down to best solution.
• Sternberg’s Components of Creativity: Expertise, Imaginative thinking, Venturesome personality, Intrinsic motivation, Creative environment.
• Functional Fixedness: Limiting objects to traditional use.

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler’s Fallacy: Misbelief about event probabilities.
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing actions due to prior investments.

Memory

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (episodic and semantic).
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall (procedural).
• Prospective Memory: Remembering future tasks.

Memory Processes

• Retention Questions: Can you recall, recognize, and relearn?
• Long-term Potentiation: Strengthening neural connections.
• Working Memory Model: Visual-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, central executive, episodic buffer.
• Multi-Store Model: Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory stages.

Encoding Types

• Visual, Acoustic, Tactile, Organizational, Elaborative, Semantic Encoding.
• Mnemonic Devices: Acronyms, associations for memory.
• Chunking: Grouping info into manageable units.
• Distributed Practice: Spacing effect for better retention.

Memory Retrieval

• Recall and Recognition: Different methods of retrieval.
• Retrieval Cues: Context, mood, and state-dependent triggers.

Forgetting and Memory Distortion

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting, then levels off.
• Encoding Failure: Ineffective storage of information.
• Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference.
• Repression and Constructive Memory: Memory distortion through reconsolidation and misinformation effect.

Intelligence

• General vs. Multiple Intelligence: G factor vs. distinct skills.
• Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence: Rapid reasoning vs. accumulated knowledge.
• Fixed vs. Growth Mindset: Born with intelligence vs. developing it.
• IQ Tests: Historical and modern uses and implications.
• Psychometrics and Test Validity: Standardization, reliability, and validity in testing.
• Flynn Effect: Rise in average IQ scores over time.

Academic Testing

• Achievement Tests: Measure learned knowledge.
• Aptitude Tests: Predict future performance.

These notes cover major concepts in Unit 2 of AP Psychology, focusing on cognition, perception, memory, problem-solving, and intelligence testing. They aim to reinforce understanding and review important content for exams.