Overview
This lecture covers the beginnings of civilization with the Sumerians, the Mesopotamian myth Enuma Elish, and the Epic of Gilgamesh, explaining their cultural significance and main themes.
Sumerian Civilization
- Sumerians established criteria for civilization: advanced cities, specialized workers, organized government and religion, writing, technology, and trade.
- Cuneiform was the first writing system, enabling history and literature.
- Sumerians developed technologies like the wheel, sail, and plow, and mastered agriculture leading to food surplus and trade.
- Trade led to cultural diffusion—spread of ideas and products between cultures.
- Major early cities included Eridu, Ur, and Uruk, which became city-states controlling surrounding lands.
- Kings' authority was believed to be divinely ordained, supported by religion and interpreted by priests.
- Sumerians were polytheistic, worshipping around 300 gods through rituals and sacrifices at ziggurats.
- Afterlife was seen pessimistically as a dark, gloomy "land of no return."
Enuma Elish (Babylonian Creation Epic)
- Enuma Elish is an ancient Mesopotamian epic describing the origin of gods, earth, and humanity.
- The story starts with three watery gods: Apsu (fresh water), Tiamat (salt water), and Mummu (mist).
- Young gods disturb Apsu, who is then killed by Enki (Ea); earth is created from Apsu’s body.
- Tiamat makes monsters for revenge, but Marduk (son of Ea and Damkina) defeats her and becomes chief god.
- Marduk creates the world from Tiamat’s body and humanity from the blood of Kingu to serve the gods.
- The epic's primary purpose is to establish Marduk as chief god and Babylon as a powerful city.
- Many elements, except Marduk, are originally Sumerian in origin.
The Epic of Gilgamesh
- Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, is two-thirds god and one-third human, known for strength but troubled by mortality.
- The gods create Enkidu, a wild man, who becomes Gilgamesh's friend after a fight.
- Together, they defeat the monster Humbaba, angering the gods.
- Gilgamesh rejects goddess Ishtar, leading her to send the Bull of Heaven, which they kill.
- As punishment, Enkidu dies; Gilgamesh mourns and seeks immortality.
- He meets the immortal Utnapishtim, hears the flood story, and fails the challenge to achieve immortality.
- Gilgamesh returns to Uruk a wiser man, accepting his limitations and mortality.
Key Terms & Definitions
- City-state — an independent city with surrounding territory forming a state.
- Cuneiform — the first system of writing, developed by Sumerians.
- Ziggurat — a stepped temple tower in Mesopotamia.
- Polytheism — belief in multiple gods.
- Cultural diffusion — spread of cultural beliefs and practices between societies.
- Enuma Elish — Babylonian creation myth to establish Marduk’s dominance.
- Theogony — the origin or genealogy of gods.
- Epic of Gilgamesh — ancient Mesopotamian poem about the hero-king Gilgamesh.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Read the full Epic of Gilgamesh (Nineveh version) for deeper understanding.
- Review main Sumerian achievements and religious practices for exam prep.