lots of students ask me for help with the cognition development unit while I don't have longer videos I have made this revision video I've also included a set of flashcards for this unit in the ssy boost app my app is designed to test your knowledge of all the topics in the a level actively it's on IOS and Android and if you want to try it out all of the paper one flash cards are free If instead you want tutorial support videos with questions from all free papers you can access over 16 hours of these as well as hundreds of printable resources over on my Pat but enough of that let's get started Pi's theory of cognitive development Pi suggests that the development of cognition depends on a process of active Discovery this is the child performing actions on the world and developing schemas as a result of these actions this is referred to as the child of scientist schemas or packages of mental information knowledge formed from experience when we gain new information about the world that doesn't fit our existing schema we're in a state of disequil this is unpleasant and in order to return to equilibrium we need to use either simulation the new information is added to an existing schema or accommodation existing schema are adapted to fit the new information or new schemas are formed PR suggested all children pass through biologically determined stages of intellectual development which could be identified by cognitive abilities such as object permanence understanding an object still exists even when it's hidden from View conservation understanding the quantity of an item or group is the same despite changes in appearance for example closer egocentrism the inability to imagine the world from another's perspective class inclusion understanding the categories of objects have subsets for example big cats a superordinate group and tigers a subordinate group stage one sensor otor birth to 2 years learns about the world from first performing instinctual reflex to intentional actions starting to construct mental representations of objects schemers develops object permanence stage two pre-operational 2 to 7 years starts to talk however unable to use logic effectively so struggles of conservation and class inclusion tasks and is still egocentric stage three concrete operational 7 to 11 years can perform a mental set of logical thoughts and operation but only on objects a v they can see concrete better performance at conservation egocentrism and class inclusion tasks stage four formal operational 11 plus years able to understand abstract logic capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning evaluations sensoria motor object permanence Pi 1963 allowed children to play with a toy a ball which he then covered with a blanket finding children under eight months wouldn't search for for the toy but children over 8 months would search for the toy demonstrating the older children realized the ball still existed pre-operational ecocentrism pi and inhaler 1956 sat children in front of a model of three mountains each was unique snowy with a cross with a Hut and plac a doll on the opposite side found children older than seven could decenter and pick the correct image that showed the doll's view however younger children could not pre-operational Beaker conservation task water was moved from one of two identical beakers into a thinner and taller Beaker seven-year-olds failed in conservation saying there was now more water in the new beika P's research has had significant implications for educational practice for example there might be little use in roleplay before children are no longer entric also when to teach different aspects of mathematics is dependent on stage evidence suggests Pi might have underestimated the cognitive abilities of children for example mcgargle and Donaldson they Ed a naughty Teddy to move counters in this study children were far more likely to conserve and correctly say though the same number of counters much of the research in this area assumes that a lack of ability equals a lack of understanding this is an inference and it might be that children are simply unable to communicate effectively or misunderstand the nature of the task presented botsky's theory of cognitive development foty suggests that the development of cognition depends on social interaction culture this is is the child internalizing the understanding of other people by using the tools of that culture for example language and Technology this is referred to as child as apprentice suggest a role of language semiotics is particularly important for cognitive development with external speech developing into Ecentric speech which then develops into inner speech for allowing higher mental functions the zone of proximal development zpd distance between what the child is currently able to do in dependently on what the child can do with the help of others the child's potential ability experts such as parents teachers and older siblings help the child pass through the zpd and move on to harder tasks experts achieve this by scaffolding providing a supportive framework to help the child complete the task but slowly withdrawing support until the child can complete the task independently for example at first demonstrating the task then giving instructions to just providing General Clues evaluations wood in Middleton 1975 observed 12 mothers teaching their children to build a tower the most successful at teaching were those seen to scaffold their instructions adapting up or down depending on the child's abilities the goki's research has practical applications suggesting an important role for one toone tuition education these ideas can also be applied by teachers in the classroom allowing children to play a more active role there are cross-cultural differences in concept development this supports vot's idea that cognitive development is due to to social interactions this also means vot's work is not culturally biased vot's Theory shows the child is an active participant in the development of their own cognitive abilities PJ's Theory suggests the child is more passive passing through the biological stages and gaining schem along the way as the theory focuses on Cog factors it fails to consider the biological and maturational limitations that children face in picking up new tasks for example young children are unable to use formal logic even with significance scap folding Bean's explanation of early infant abilities beon argues that infants have a physical reasoning system and innate knowledge of the physical world this hardwired cognitive framework gives a basic understanding of physical principles such as object permanence gravity and causality helping infants navigate their environment interative objects and predict outcomes these early infant abilities are thought to be an a present from birth but also developed rapidly within the first year of life for experience and learning beon used violation of expectations research to test for the physical reasoning system infants 2 and a half months plus tend to look longer events that violate their expectations in possible events such as objects appearing to defy gravity or passing through solid barriers this increased looking time is interpreted as a sign of surprise or confusion suggesting that infants have formed expectations about how the physical world should behave based on their innate understanding of physical principles Bon's violation of expectation research beon truck and ramp infant shown a toy truck rolling down a ramp habituation stage in the experimental impossible stage a box is placed in the track in the way of the truck the box is then hidden by a screen infants look longer when the truck seemed to pass through the box the Box had been secretly removed this indicates that the infants were surprised by the violation of their expectation about solidity and they have object perence as the box was hidden AGA and Bean's Minnie Mouse study a Minnie Mouse doll was moved from one side of a screen to another habituation stage infants look longer at the experimental impossible stage when the doll moved from one side of a screen with a cutout to the other side without appearing to move through the cutout section there were two dolls on either side of the cutout section this indicates that the infants were surprised by the violation of their expectation about object permanence they assumed the movement of an occluded object evaluations Bon's research strongly challenges PJ's research that suggests that the age at which infants can represent objects object permanence is 8 months in Pi's research it may be that the children are simply unable to communicate effectively or misunderstand the nature of the task presented Bean's research has face validity many animals ability to reason about the physical world is a name for example infant animals such as zebra can run from predators soon after birth suggesting a basic pre-programming that allows them to identify predators and navigate the environment effectively providing survival value it makes sense that humans would have some basic pre-programming Bean's research depends on the use of inferences while this is the only option with infants the inference that increased looking indicates an infant surprise that physical principles being violated may be mistaken cash on and Cohen argue infants may look at unexpected events because they're novel not because they understand physical principles beon claims that the physical reasoning system is present from bir however the infants used in the study are 2 and a half months old or more not newborn babies it could be these early infant abilities are not innate but are learned through early experience the development of social cognition social cognition mental cogntive processes that relate to the social World such as understanding other people's intentions perspectives and emotions these can be worked out by interpreting other people's behavior ACC according to Salon the development of social cognition happens by passing through levels of perspective taking this is moving from an egocentric perspective to an understanding that others perspectives are shaped by culture and morality stage zero egocentric 3 to 6 years note others have thought separate from their own but will often confuse with their own stage one social informational role taking 6 to8 years can reliably consider someone's perspective but one person at a time stage two self-reflective role taking 8 to 10 years can fully appreciate the perspective of one person step into another shoes stage three Mutual third-party role taking 10 to 12 years can simultaneously consider multiple people's perspectives stage four social and conventional system societal role taking 12 to adle no views are influenced by culture and values evaluations Guru Chari and Salman 1982 found 40 out of 41 children in a 5-year long toal study developed as expected by Salman Selman and burn 1974 found that when presented with d attacks and as to describe the viewpoints of the characters there was a correlation between age and stage of perspective in line with selman's fairy for Gerald and white 2003 found when children were told by parents to take the perspective of the victim when being punished the perspective taking was more developed demonstrating parenting style is linked to perspective taking selman's Theory can be criticized for not including a role for understanding others emotion or feeling empathy when taking the perspective of others the entire focus of the the is on children understanding another's perspective understanding the stage a child is in has important implications for both conflict resolution in schools with teachers better able to deal with issues relating to bullying and racism but also can be applied to family therapy helping parents better understand behavioral issues in relation to their child's stage of social cognition hey there I should still watching I'm guessing you'll find this video useful as I release content right up to the exams don't forget to subscribe so you know when new videos are uploaded also as this video is being released I'm on around 50,000 subscribers and I'd love to get to 100K at some point in the next few years the theory of mind and the Salan study theory of Mind most people have an innate theory of Mind mechanism this is a cognitive process that helps us understand that other people have internal mental states such as emotions and intentions that inform their behavior theory of Mind as an explanation for autism suggest people with Autism suffer from mind blindness this is a defective lack of an innate theory of Mind mechanism and explains why autistic people struggle to appreciate the emotional perspective or intentions of others this is similar to ecocentrism as identified by P the San researched by Baron Cohen 1985 20 or IC children compared to 14 with Down syndrome and 27 children with typical functioning children shown two dolls Sally and an Sally places a marble in a basket and leaves and moves marble to box children asked one where's the marble really the reality question two where was the marble in the beginning the memory question and three where will Sally look for the marble the belief question all children pass question 1 and two however only 20% of autistic children could answer the belief question accurately compared to 85% of normally developed children and 86% of down syndrome children showing wrong answers is due to a lack aeria of mind not simply due to intellectual delay evaluations Wilmer and perner 1983 were the first to use a false belief task to task theory of my mechanism Maxi left his chocolate in a blue cupboard in the kitchen and then played outside Maxi's mother used some chocolate and left the rest in a green cupboard children will ask where Maxi will look none of the 3 to four year olds 57% of the four to six year olds and 86% of the six to nyar old children pointed correctly to the green cupboard suggesting theory of Mind develops between four and 6 years old for most children theory of mind is helpful in understanding the features of autism and ultimately helping to develop coping mechanisms for people with Autism and the people who support them children who perform poorly on the false belief tasks like the San study still enjoy roleplay based play this playar requires a theory of my mechanism suggesting it's the complexity of these tasks that lead to both performance not lacking a theory of my mechanism theory of my mechanism as an explanation for autism can explain deficits but not the special abilities shown by autistic sants the role of the Mir urine system in social cognition it was accidentally found rotti when a researcher reachs for food in view of a monkey the monkey's Premo cortex fired the same neurons the monkey would have used to perform the same action physically suggest some neurons act as mirror neurons allowing simulation of the physical acts of others to better understand intention the role of the mirror neuron system in social cognition researchers argue there are also meral neurons for stimulating the emotional experience of others empathy for example seeing others in distress disgusted or happy causes our Associated mer neurons to fire giving an understanding of the internal emotional state of the other person person a defective Mir neuros system could be an explanation for autism this would contribute to a lack of FY of mind not appreciating others have internal mental States and mind such as emotions and attentions evaluations leabon 2005 found in fmri of 24 participants high levels of Mir urine activity in both the premot cortex but also the inferior frontal gyus an a of the brain involves ventional thinking suggest Mir neuron function is not just to stimulate Behavior But to infer the intention of others from their behavior if defective Mir neurons are responsible for social cognition and explain autism this opens the possibility for biological drug therapy to improve the sense of empathy and ultimately social communication in people of autism much of the research on MAR neurons has been through looking at groups of neurons in Scanning Machines like fmri this means little is known about Mar neuron activity at the level of individual neurons the suggestion that the complex processes of social cognition and in particular empathy is simply due to the automatic firing of mirror neurons is highly reductionist the role of learning for example of ethical principles and societal Norms is important don't forget you can now test yourself on the cognition and development unit with the psych boost app if you want to try out the app all of the topics in paper one are free and you can get it on iOS or Android if you want to see model ansers to questions or access my other resources there's also patreon speaking of patreon I do want to thank all of my patrons for their support with the help of all of these students and teachers I'm able to teach part-time so I can work on the main mission of Psych boost the development of a free to watch at hopefully high quality a level psychology course and a special thank you to cat posnik and ammed ranii for supporting at the developer level so thanks to them good luck with the revision and I'll see you in the next pych Boost video