List of Logical Fallacies

Strawman

• Definition: Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack.
• Effect: Undermines honest and rational debate by presenting one's position as reasonable.
• Example: Misconstruing a suggestion to increase spending on health and education as a desire to cut military spending and leave a country defenseless.

Loaded Question

• Definition: Asking a question with a built-in presumption, making it difficult to answer without appearing guilty.
• Effect: Derails rational debate by forcing the recipient to defend themselves.
• Example: Asking someone if they have stopped a bad habit, implying they had one.

Composition/Division

• Definition: Assuming what is true for a part must be true for the whole, or vice-versa.
• Effect: Biased thinking due to presumed consistency.
• Example: Assuming invisibility for an object made of invisible atoms.

Begging the Question

• Definition: Circular argument where the conclusion is included in the premise.
• Effect: Results from ingrained assumptions, lacks logical coherence.
• Example: Believing a book's claims because the book itself asserts its truthfulness.

Tu Quoque

• Definition: Avoiding criticism by turning it back on the accuser.
• Effect: Shifts focus from the argument to the person making the criticism.
• Example: Responding to criticism by pointing out a past fallacy of the critic.

Appeal to Authority

• Definition: Asserting something must be true because an authority says so.
• Effect: Misuses authority, disregarding need for evidence.
• Example: Defending a claim by citing a questioning authority without evidence.

Middle Ground

• Definition: Assuming a compromise between extremes must be true.
• Effect: Bias towards finding a middle ground even if one side is completely untrue.
• Example: Compromising on a debunked claim.

Bandwagon

• Definition: Arguing something is true because it's popular.
• Effect: Confuses popularity with validity.
• Example: Citing widespread belief in leprechauns as evidence of their existence.

Black-or-White

• Definition: Presenting two alternatives as the only possibilities.
• Effect: Obscures rational debate by creating false dilemmas.
• Example: Framing support for a plan as the only alternative to siding with the enemy.

Ad Hominem

• Definition: Attacking an opponent's character to undermine their argument.
• Effect: Discredits argument without addressing its substance.
• Example: Discrediting someone's proposal based on their personal life.

No True Scotsman

• Definition: Dismissing criticisms by appealing to purity.
• Effect: Renders beliefs unfalsifiable by shifting goalposts.
• Example: Asserting true members of a group do not engage in criticized behavior.

Appeal to Emotion

• Definition: Manipulating emotional responses instead of presenting logical arguments.
• Effect: Obscures lack of rational reason.
• Example: Using pity to persuade someone to eat unwanted food.

Personal Incredulity

• Definition: Dismissing something as untrue because it is difficult to understand.
• Effect: Replaces understanding with disbelief.
• Example: Rejecting evolution due to lack of understanding.

The Texas Sharpshooter

• Definition: Cherry-picking data to fit an argument.
• Effect: Misleadingly suggests patterns where none exist.
• Example: Correlating unrelated statistical data to support a health claim.

Burden of Proof

• Definition: Shifting the burden of proof from the claimant to others.
• Effect: Misplaces responsibility for proving a claim.
• Example: Asking others to disprove an unfounded claim.

False Cause

• Definition: Presuming correlation implies causation.
• Effect: Mistakes unrelated statistical correlation for cause.
• Example: Linking global warming to decreased piracy.

Ambiguity

• Definition: Using ambiguous language to mislead.
• Effect: Misrepresenting truth through misleading language.
• Example: Misunderstanding a parking sign due to ambiguous phrasing.

Genetic Fallacy

• Definition: Judging something as good or bad based on its origin.
• Effect: Distracts from the argument by focusing on origin.
• Example: Dismissing media claims based on perceived unreliability of the media.

Anecdotal

• Definition: Using personal experience instead of evidence.
• Effect: Relies on isolated examples over statistical data.
• Example: Citing a relative’s health to challenge scientific evidence.

The Fallacy Fallacy

• Definition: Assuming a poorly argued claim must be wrong.
• Effect: Disregards possible truth due to poor arguments.
• Example: Rejecting healthy eating based on a flawed argument.

Special Pleading

• Definition: Creating exceptions when a claim is shown to be false.
• Effect: Clings to beliefs by inventing excuses.
• Example: Claiming psychic powers fail under scientific testing due to lack of faith.

The Gambler's Fallacy

• Definition: Believing past events affect future outcomes in independent situations.
• Effect: Misjudges probabilities based on previous occurrences.
• Example: Expecting a roulette outcome based on past results.

Appeal to Nature

• Definition: Arguing something is good because it is natural.
• Effect: Confuses naturalness with justification.
• Example: Criticizing artificial medicine in favor of natural remedies.

Slippery Slope

• Definition: Claiming a minor action will lead to severe consequences.
• Effect: Leverages fear without evidence.
• Example: Exaggerating outcomes of not doing homework.