Physics Fundamentals Lecture Notes

Time

• Fundamental aspect of physics.
• Measure of Change: Tracks the universe, compares events, defines sequences.
• Continuous flow: No shape, weight, or form.
• Structure to Universe: Defined by atomic vibrations, Earth's rotation (day), and orbit (year).
• Dimension of Existence: Influences celestial and biological processes.

Position

• Reference Point of Motion: Always relative to something else.
• Coordinate System: Describes motion in 1D, 2D (maps), and 3D (X, Y, Z coordinates).
• Frame of Reference: Position varies with observer perspective.
• Role in Navigation: Essential for tracking satellites, earthquakes, and tectonic movements.

Distance

• Measure of Length: Total path covered, not direction-specific.
• Scalar Quantity: Only magnitude, differs from displacement (shortest path).
• Units: Meters, kilometers, miles.

Mass

• Presence of Matter: Gives objects substance and resistance to motion.
• Quantifies Matter: Constant regardless of location.
• Gravitational Influence: Determines interactions, planetary motion.
• Measurement: Balances/scales on Earth, force needed in space.

Motion

• Foundation of Change: From galaxies to atomic vibrations.
• Relative Concept: Described by comparison to a reference point.
• Types: Uniform (constant rate), non-uniform (changing speed/direction).
• Forms: Linear, circular, periodic, chaotic.

Speed

• Rate of Movement: Distance covered over time.
• Scalar Quantity: Magnitude only, no direction.
• Everyday Examples: Walking, plane cruising, cheetah sprinting.

Velocity

• Speed with Direction: Vector quantity.
• Complete Description of Motion: Specifies magnitude and direction.
• Applications: Planes, wind velocity, ocean currents.

Acceleration

• Change in Motion: Speeding up, slowing down, changing direction.
• Rate of Velocity Change: Measured in m/s².
• Sources: Gravity, applied forces.

Force

• Cause of Motion Change: Interaction that starts, stops, or alters motion.
• Types: Contact (friction, applied), balanced/unbalanced.

Inertia

• Resistance to Change: Objects maintain state unless acted upon.
• Applications: Vehicle design, space exploration, sports.

Momentum

• Mass and Velocity Product: Determines impact and stopping distance.
• Conservation Principle: Momentum transfers in collisions.

Impulse

• Change in Momentum: Result of force over time.
• Applications: Safety mechanisms, sports performance.

Newton's Laws

1. Law of Inertia.
2. Force equals mass times acceleration.
3. Action and reaction.

• Foundation of Classical Physics: Governing object interactions.

Gravity

• Universal Architect: Attraction between masses, shapes galaxies.
• Einstein's Theory: Space-time curvature.
• Effects: Gravitational time dilation, black holes.

Free Fall

• Motion under Gravity Alone: Constant acceleration.
• Applications: Celestial mechanics.

Friction

• Resistance Force: Affects motion, surfaces interaction.
• Types: Static (rest), kinetic (motion).
• Dependence: Surface texture, normal force.

Air Resistance

• Opposes Motion Through Air: Influences falling objects.
• Applications: Skydiving, vehicle design.

Work

• Energy Transfer: Force causing displacement.
• Depends on: Force, distance, direction.

Energy

• Universal Currency: Fuels motion, transformations.
• Forms: Kinetic, potential, thermal, chemical.

Kinetic Energy

• Energy of Motion: Depends on mass and speed.
• Applications: Vehicles, athletics.

Potential Energy

• Stored Energy: Due to position or condition.
• Types: Gravitational, elastic, chemical.

Power

• Rate of Work: Energy transfer over time.
• Applications: Engines, lighting, natural phenomena.

Conservation of Energy

• Energy Transformation: Total amount remains constant.

Conservation of Momentum

• Momentum Transfer: Total constant in collisions.

Work-Energy Theorem

• Work Equals Energy Change: Explains force and motion relationship.

Center of Mass

• Balance Point: Average mass position.
• Applications: Stability, motion analysis.

Center of Gravity

• Weight Balance: Determines object stability.

Rotational Motion

• Spinning Dynamics: Movement about fixed axis.
• Principles: Angular displacement, velocity, torque.

Moment of Inertia

• Rotational Mass Resistance: Mass distribution effect.

Torque

• Rotational Force: Distance from pivot affects rotation.

Angular Momentum

• Rotational Momentum: Product of inertia and velocity.
• Conservation: No external torque, remains constant.

Centripetal Force

• Inward Force for Circular Motion: Prevents straight-line travel.

Simple Machines

• Force Amplifiers: Lever, pulley, wheel and axle, inclined plane, wedge, screw.

Mechanical Advantage

• Force Multiplication: Output force/input force ratio.

Oscillations

• Repetitive Movement: Equilibrium displacement, rhythmic cycles.

Wave Concept

• Energy Transfer Disturbance: Through medium or space.

Simple Harmonic Motion

• Oscillation Type: Restoring force towards equilibrium.

Frequency

• Repetition Rate: Cycles per time unit.

Period

• Cycle Time: Duration for one complete oscillation.

Wavelength

• Distance Between Wave Peaks: Influences wave interactions.

Amplitude

• Wave Intensity: Maximum displacement from rest.

Wave Speed

• Propagation Rate: Depends on medium.

Sound Waves

• Vibrations Through Medium: Compressional and refractional regions.

Resonance

• Amplified Vibration: Natural frequency exposure.

Pressure

• Force Over Area: Governs fluid behavior.

Fluid Statics

• Fluids at Rest: Pressure distribution, buoyancy.

Fluid Dynamics

• Fluid Motion Study: Streamline vs. turbulent flow.

Viscosity

• Flow Resistance: Molecule interaction strength.

Temperature

• Measure of Particle Motion: Determines state of matter.

Heat

• Energy in Motion: Transfer due to temperature difference.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• Thermal Equilibrium Principle: Basis for temperature measurement.

First Law of Thermodynamics

• Energy Conservation: Transforms but remains constant.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Entropy Increase: Direction of natural processes.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

• Absolute Zero Behavior: Entropy approaches minimum.

Ideal Gas

• Gas Behavior Law: Pressure, volume, temperature relationship.

Kinetic Theory of Gases

• Particle Motion Model: Explains pressure, temperature.

Phase Transitions

• State Changes: Solid, liquid, gas governed by energy.

Statics

• Equilibrium Force Study: Translational and rotational balance.

Statistical Mechanics

• Microscopic Motion Analysis: Predicts large-scale properties.

Electric Charge

• Fundamental Property: Positive and negative interactions.

Kul's Law

• Charge Interaction Law: Force depends on charge and distance.

Electric Field

• Charge Influence Region: Force exerted on other charges.

Electric Potential

• Energy Per Charge: Voltage drives charge movement.

Capacitance

• Charge Storage Ability: Measured in capacitors.

Ohm's Law

• Voltage, Current, Resistance Relationship: Fundamental circuit principle.

Basic Circuit Analysis

• Voltage, Current, Resistance Interaction: Kirchhoff's laws application.

AC and DC Electricity

• Alternating vs. Direct Current: Power distribution methods.

Magnetic Field

• Invisible Force Region: Surrounds magnets, currents.

Electromagnetic Induction

• Current Generation by Magnetic Field: Fundamental in power technology.

Faraday's Law

• Induced Current Law: Proportional to magnetic field change.

Lens's Law

• Induced Current Direction: Opposes change causing it.

Maxwell's Equations

• Electromagnetism Laws: Interaction of electric and magnetic fields.

Electromagnetic Waves

• Field Oscillation Waves: Light, radio, X-ray propagation.

Light as a Wave

• Electromagnetic Wave Nature: Explains behaviors like diffraction.

Reflection

• Light Bouncing Off Surface: Angle of incidence equals reflection.

Refraction

• Light Bending in Medium: Changes speed and direction.

Diffraction

• Wave Bending Around Obstacles: Creates interference patterns.

Interference

• Wave Overlap Effect: Constructive and destructive patterns.

Field Concepts

• Force Exertion over Distance: Gravitational, electric, magnetic fields.

Black Body Radiation

• Energy Emission and Absorption: Fundamental in thermal physics.

Atomic Structure

• Building Blocks of Matter: Nucleus of protons/neutrons, electron cloud.

Photon Concept

• Light's Quantum Nature: Discrete energy packets.

Photoelectric Effect

• Photon-Induced Electron Ejection: Supports wave-particle duality.

Dimensional Analysis

• Unit Consistency Check: Ensures equation validity.

Scaling Laws

• Size Effect on Behavior: Influences biological, engineering systems.

Nonlinear Dynamics

• Complex System Behavior: Sensitive to initial conditions.

Chaos Theory

• Unpredictable Effects from Small Causes: Underlying patterns exist.

Special Relativity

• Speed of Light Consistency: Time, space, energy interconnection.

Mass-Energy Equivalence

• Mass to Energy Conversion: Einstein's E=mc².

General Relativity

• Gravity as Space-Time Curvature: Explains planetary motion.

Quantization

• Discrete Physical Properties: Energy, charge in specific amounts.

Wave-Particle Duality

• Light and Particles as Waves and Particles: Dual behavior.

Uncertainty Principle

• Position and Momentum Limitation: Heisenberg's fundamental limit.

Quantum Mechanics

• Behavior at Atomic Levels: Probability-based rather than deterministic.

Quantum Entanglement

• Linked Particle States: Instantaneous interaction over distances.

Quantum Decoherence

• Loss of Quantum State Coherence: Emergence of classical reality.

Renormalization

• Handling Quantum Infinities: Adjusts fundamental parameters.

Quantum Field Theory

• Particle as Field Excitations: Combines quantum mechanics and relativity.