1.2 Europe on the Brink of Change - U.S. History | OpenStax

Learning Objectives

• Describe the European societies that engaged in conversion, conquest, and commerce.
• Discuss the motives for and mechanisms of early European exploration.

The Middle Ages

• Time Frame: Fall of the Roman Empire (476 CE) to the European Renaissance (late 14th century).
• Characteristics:
  • Political and military discord.
  • Inhabitants lived in walled cities for protection.
  • Society structured under powerful lords and knights.
• The Christian Church:
  • Unified and powerful institution.
  • Priests in monasteries kept knowledge through manuscripts.
• The Black Death (Plague):
  • Arrived in 1340s via Genoese merchants.
  • Killed about one-third of Europe’s population.

Life in Feudal Europe

• Village Structure:
  • Manorial houses, castles, churches, and peasant homes.
  • Carcassonne, France, remains a well-preserved example.
• Feudal System:
  • Lords, knights, and serfs each had distinct roles.
  • Serfs worked the land for protection.
• Serf Life:
  • Harsh living conditions, high mortality rates.
  • Agrarian society dictated by seasons.

The Church and Society

• Role of the Church:
  • Organized institution, maintained hierarchy.
  • Provided sacraments marking life stages.
  • Controlled interpretation of the Bible and societal events.
• Power of the Pope:
  • Authority over theological and temporal matters.
  • Excommunication as a tool of control.

Christianity Encounters Islam

• Islam’s Rise (622):
  • Prophet Muhammad and the Koran.
  • Spread through conversion and conquest.
• Islam in Europe:
  • Reached Spain in 711.
  • Controlled much of Spain until the Reconquista.
• The Crusades:
  • Religious wars to retake Holy Lands.
  • Began in 1095; involved brutal conflicts.

The Crusades

• Motivations:
  • Religious zeal, adventure, land, and glory.
• Impact:
  • Negative: Persecution of Jews, Muslim-Christian hatred.
  • Positive: Expanded maritime trade, cultural exchanges.

The Iberian Peninsula

• Exploration and Expansion:
  • Norse explorers reached Canada before Columbus.
  • Iberian explorations led by Portugal and Spain.
  • Prince Henry the Navigator promoted exploration.
• Spain's Rise:
  • Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile united kingdoms.
  • Religious zeal led to the Inquisition and exploration funding.

Motives for European Exploration

• "God, Glory, and Gold":
  • Religious conversion, wealth, and adventure.
  • Marco Polo’s travels fueled imagination.

Columbus and 1492

• Key Events:
  • Expulsion of Muslims from Granada.
  • Columbus's voyage funded by Spanish monarchy.
• Columbus's Voyage:
  • Sailed in 1492, landed in the Bahamas, named it San Salvador.

These notes summarize the key points and historical context of European society on the brink of change, focusing on the influences and events leading to the age of exploration.