Overview
This chapter examines the collision of Native American, European, and African cultures in the Americas after 1492, focusing on colonization, conflict, and the emergence of new societies and identities.
The Columbian Exchange and European Expansion
- The Columbian Exchange introduced new foods, plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and Europe, drastically impacting populations.
- Native Americans suffered devastating population loss due to European diseases.
- Spain initially reaped great wealth from conquering the Aztec and Incan Empires.
Spanish America
- Spanish colonization expanded through Mexico, the Caribbean, South America, and Florida, often accompanied by violence, forced labor, and mission work.
- The encomienda system gave Spanish settlers control over Indigenous labor.
- Spanish missions, led mainly by Franciscans, aimed to convert and control Native populations.
- In the Southwest, harsh conditions and Native resistance limited Spanish settlements.
Spain's Rivals: France, the Netherlands, and Portugal
- The French built alliances and trade relationships (especially fur) with Native Americans, focusing on cooperation over conquest.
- French Jesuit missionaries often immersed themselves in Native communities.
- The Dutch, driven by trade, established New Netherland and relied on wampum and alliances with the Iroquois.
- Dutch patroon system tried to attract settlers, but labor shortages led to importation of enslaved Africans.
- Portuguese colonization in Brazil centered on sugar production and enslaved African labor, with syncretic religious culture developing.
English Colonization
- England sought wealth and power to rival Spain, fueled by mercantilism and religious motives.
- Early attempts at colonization (Roanoke) failed; Jamestown, founded 1607, became the first permanent English colony.
- The English frequently displaced or waged war with Native Americans rather than seeking integration.
- Jamestown settlers struggled with starvation and conflict, but tobacco cultivation eventually brought wealth and growth.
- The headright system and House of Burgesses encouraged more English settlement and self-government.
- The first enslaved Africans arrived in Virginia in 1619, laying the groundwork for racialized slavery.
Jamestown and the Chesapeake
- Early Jamestown settlers were unprepared and reliant on Powhatan Confederacy for survival.
- High mortality rates resulted from disease and famine; the colony only survived due to Native assistance and later, tobacco profits.
- Indentured servitude was common, but labor shortages led to increased reliance on enslaved Africans.
- Violent conflict and dispossession of Native lands followed colonial expansion.
New England Colonies
- New England colonies were founded primarily by Puritans seeking religious reform, not just economic gain.
- Puritans aimed to build a "City on a Hill" modeled on godly community and covenant.
- Colonists arrived as families and formed more egalitarian, healthy, and stable communities than in the South.
- Smallpox decimated Native populations before most English settlers arrived, contributing to English success.
- Democratic practices were limited but towns gave male property holders a say in governance.
- Puritan influence waned over time with rising prosperity and religious pluralism.
Conclusion
- English North American colonies initially paled in comparison to Caribbean sugar colonies in economic importance.
- The Atlantic economy's growth increased reliance on enslaved Africans, solidifying new racial hierarchies and identities.
- The “collision of cultures” produced new societies, economies, and systems of social control.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Columbian Exchange — transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Americas and Europe after 1492.
- Encomienda System — Spanish labor system granting colonists rights to Indigenous labor.
- Black Legend — narrative emphasizing Spanish cruelty in the Americas.
- Middle Ground — zone of interaction and negotiation between Europeans and Native Americans, especially in the Great Lakes region.
- Headright System — land grant policy to attract settlers to Virginia.
- Indentured Servitude — labor system where a person works for a period in exchange for passage to America.
- Puritans — English Protestants seeking further reform of the Church of England.
- House of Burgesses — first representative assembly in English America (Virginia).
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review the provided primary sources for evidence of cultural encounters (e.g., John Winthrop's sermon, John Lawson's accounts).
- Understand the economic, religious, and social motives behind different European colonization strategies.
- Prepare for discussion or exam by comparing colonial strategies and their impacts on Native, African, and European peoples.