Major Civilizations and State-Building (1200-1450)

Overview

This lecture reviews the major civilizations and state-building methods from circa 1200 to 1450, focusing on political, economic, and cultural developments in China, the Islamic world (Dar al-Islam), South and Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Europe.

State-Building in Song China

• The Song Dynasty ruled China from 960–1279, emphasizing strong state-building and centralized control.
• Rule was justified through Neo-Confucianism, which stressed social hierarchy and filial piety (respect for parents and ancestors).
• Women’s rights declined during this period; they lost legal rights and faced social restrictions, such as foot binding, especially among elites.
• The Imperial bureaucracy expanded, with officials selected through a civil service exam based on Confucian texts. In theory, this system was open to all men, but in practice, only the wealthy could afford the education needed to pass.
• Song China influenced neighboring regions—Korea, Japan, and Vietnam—by spreading its bureaucratic systems and religious traditions.

Religion and Culture in East Asia

• Neo-Confucianism revived traditional Confucian values and limited the influence of Buddhism, which had previously been significant.
• Buddhism split into two main branches: Theravada (focused on monastic life, common in Southeast Asia) and Mahayana (broader participation, popular in East Asia). Mahayana Buddhism encouraged helping others achieve enlightenment.
• The Song economy became highly commercialized, with increased production and trade of goods like porcelain and silk. The introduction of Champa rice (from Vietnam) allowed for multiple harvests per year, leading to population growth.
• Expansion of the Grand Canal improved internal trade and communication across China.

State-Building in the Islamic World (Dar al-Islam)

• Definition and Scope

  • "Dar al-Islam" means "the house of Islam" and refers to all regions where Islam was the main organizing principle of society and government during this period. This included large parts of the Middle East, North Africa, West Africa, Central Asia, and South Asia.
  • In these regions, Islamic beliefs and laws shaped politics, culture, and daily life.

• Political Changes and Empires

  • Before 1200, the Abbasid Caliphate (centered in Baghdad) was the dominant Muslim empire, but by 1200, its power was declining.
  • As the Abbasids weakened, new Islamic political entities emerged, led mainly by Turkic peoples rather than Arabs. Key examples:
    • Seljuk Empire: Turkic pastoralists who first served the Abbasids as military help, then established their own empire in Central Asia and the Middle East.
    • Mamluk Sultanate: A regime in Egypt and the Levant, ruled by former slave soldiers (Mamluks).
    • Delhi Sultanate: A Muslim state established in northern India by Turkic rulers.
  • These new empires continued some Abbasid practices, such as using Sharia law (Islamic law based on the Quran) as the foundation of their legal systems and relying on military elites for administration.

• Society and Law

  • Sharia law provided a unified legal code for Muslim societies, shaping everything from criminal justice to family life.
  • The military played a central role in governing these empires, especially under Turkic rule.

• Cultural and Scientific Achievements

  • The Islamic world was a center of learning and culture. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad was a major library and research center where scholars translated and preserved Greek philosophical works (like those of Plato and Aristotle) and made advances in science and mathematics.
  • Notable scholars included Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, who made significant contributions to mathematics, including the development of trigonometry.
  • These achievements were later crucial for the European Renaissance, as many ancient texts survived only through their Arabic translations and commentaries.

• Religious Diversity

  • While Islam was dominant, other religions like Judaism and Christianity were also practiced in the heartlands of Dar al-Islam. All three are monotheistic and share some beliefs and traditions.
  • Muslims, Jews, and Christians often lived side by side, though Muslims were usually the ruling elite.

• Expansion of Islam

  • The spread of Islam during this period happened in three main ways:
    1. Military Expansion: Muslim empires expanded their territories through conquest, as seen with the Seljuks, Mamluks, and Delhi Sultanate.
    2. Merchant Activity: Muslim merchants traveled widely, especially across North and West Africa, spreading Islam and stimulating trade. In West Africa, the Empire of Mali converted to Islam partly to gain access to trade networks.
    3. Sufi Missionaries: Sufis were Islamic mystics who emphasized personal spiritual experience and were open to adapting Islam to local customs. Their flexible approach made Islam attractive to diverse populations, especially in South and Southeast Asia.

• Continuity and Change

  • The shift from Arab to Turkic leadership marked a major change, but many core Islamic practices and institutions continued.
  • Dar al-Islam, along with Song China, was one of the world’s main centers of wealth, scholarship, and cultural exchange during this era.

South and Southeast Asia: Belief Systems and States

• Hinduism remained the dominant religion in India, but Islam became increasingly influential with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate, especially among elites.
• The Bhakti movement emerged in southern India, emphasizing personal devotion to a single Hindu god and challenging traditional social and gender hierarchies.
• Hindu resistance to Muslim rule was seen in the Rajput kingdoms (a collection of Hindu states in the north) and the Vijayanagara Empire in the south, which was founded by former Muslims who reverted to Hinduism.
• In Southeast Asia, the Majapahit Kingdom (sea-based, Buddhist) controlled trade routes, while the Khmer Empire (land-based) transitioned from Hinduism to Buddhism, as seen in the temple complex of Angkor Wat.

Societies in the Americas

• The Aztec Empire (founded 1345) ruled through a system of tribute, requiring conquered peoples to provide goods and labor. Human sacrifice was central to their religion.
• The Inca Empire (early 1400s) was highly centralized, using the mit'a system, which required all subjects to provide labor for state projects like farming, mining, and construction.
• The Mississippian culture in North America built large mound centers and organized society around agriculture, with large towns dominating smaller settlements.

African States and Societies

• Swahili city-states along the East African coast thrived on Indian Ocean trade, adopted Islam, and developed the Swahili language—a blend of Bantu and Arabic.
• In West Africa, empires like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai centralized power and promoted Islam among elites, while most people kept indigenous beliefs.
• The Hausa Kingdoms were decentralized city-states that acted as brokers in the trans-Saharan trade.
• Great Zimbabwe (1250–1450) prospered from agriculture and gold trade, building massive stone structures and maintaining indigenous religious practices.
• Ethiopia was a Christian kingdom, unique in Africa for its religion, and had a hierarchical social structure similar to other African states.

Europe: Belief Systems and State Organization

• Eastern Europe (Byzantine Empire, Kievan Rus) followed Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which united people and connected them to wider trade networks.
• Western Europe was fragmented into many small states after the fall of the Roman Empire, but Roman Catholicism provided cultural unity and linked these states through a church hierarchy.
• Jews and Muslims lived in Europe, often participating in commerce, but faced discrimination and marginalization.
• Feudalism structured society: powerful lords granted land to vassals in exchange for loyalty and military service.
• Manorialism organized rural life around large estates (manors), with peasants (serfs) working the land in exchange for protection.
• After 1000 CE, monarchs began to centralize power, gradually reducing the influence of the nobility.

Key Terms & Definitions

• State: A politically organized territory under one government.
• Neo-Confucianism: Revival and adaptation of Confucian philosophy, emphasizing hierarchy and social order.
• Civil Service Exam: Test based on Confucian teachings for selecting government officials.
• Filial Piety: Respect and obedience owed by children to parents and ancestors.
• Bureaucracy: Hierarchical system of government officials who carry out the will of the ruler.
• Dar al-Islam: Regions where Islam is the primary organizing principle of society and government.
• Sharia Law: Islamic law derived from the Quran, governing both public and private life.
• House of Wisdom: Major center of learning in Baghdad where scholars preserved and advanced knowledge.
• Sufi: Islamic mystics who spread Islam through personal devotion and adaptation to local cultures.
• Tribute System: Requirement for conquered peoples to provide goods or labor to their rulers.
• Mit'a System: Incan labor tax requiring subjects to work on state projects.
• Feudalism: System of loyalty and land exchange between lords and vassals.
• Manorialism: Economic and social system organizing rural life around large estates.

Action Items / Next Steps

• Review the main features and state-building strategies of major civilizations: China, Dar al-Islam, South/Southeast Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Europe.
• Study the key terms and definitions to understand their significance for exam questions.
• Complete assigned readings and practice multiple choice questions for Unit 1 to reinforce understanding.