- Reproduction 68 organism
"variety of genes, creates mutation
- 4 cells, takes i chroms from one, i trom other
- Autosomes: info cello need, par up #1-22
traleto same kind of gene in same epo ands togethe
- To rounds, four dauanters nave haploid #S
" diploid: 2n, full set of chroms (somatic)
7 naplod: n, halt # cltoms, (sex,
- E produces lega, 3 non-function polar podies
e trophase I: hom chromatids exchange genes (sometimes)
- Meta I: ham pairs lune up in center
- Ana I: separate toward centroles
- Telo I: 2 cells are nap, chrom # ditt bic crossing
- Pro II: nucleus dissolves, spinde torma
- Meta II: Chroms in middle
- Ana II: chroms separate
- Telo II: Memprane pinches, diff genes in each
- Used to farm gamete cells, has ½ chroms achroms all dilt be of crossing over in pro I
- Asexual is only one parent, ess energy, no genetic vatety 17 ro tang is ming from parents
- species surve more w/ variety, mating is hard tho
-Genetics: transmission of characteristies from parents uchrom copies passed from generations
- Gregor Mendel. Austrian monk, used pea plans to study genetics in 800g
- Traits inherited characteristics
- Genes: UNA segments tor specific things
- Alleles, ditt versions or a gene
- Dominant: always expressed if present (capital).
- recessive. only expressed when its the only gene present lowercase
-genotype:type gene/allele inherited
-phenotype: expression of genes in organism
-Mendel experiments: pure bred peas, self-pollinating
-Punnet square: shows genetic outcomes
- Principle of segregation: alleles sep in formation In ME → only one allele from each parent
- principle of independent assortment: one tralt doesn't affect the others, ex hair + eye color
-recessive disorders: only if homo rec, het are carriers
-dom disorders: hom dom, less in hetero, hom rec none
-pedigrees: fam history diagram to trace traits
-incomplete dom: phenoblending, combo gene etfects
- codominance: hetero has both
- Multiple alleles: traits from 2+ alleles
-Sex linked: X linked, carried on sex chrom → hemophilia: rec and color blindness rec
-polygenic trait: affected by many genes → more rec = lighter, more dom = darker
-enviro factors: diet, nutrition, temp, vitamins, etc
-penetrance: if you have the gene, will it show? → expressed as %
- DNA missing oxygen, double stranded.
- RNA single strand, uracil instead of thymine
- Proteins made by what DNA says →RNA made to translate DNA instructions
-mRNA: companies DNA complementary, transcribed 5’→3’
-rRNA: reads mRNA to translate, pairs of two
-3 base long codons on m code amino acids, matched w/ tRNA anticodons to bring proper aa, after coded complements then combine 3 bases into codon
-r: ribosomal, 3 binding sites, small 30s and large 50s
-amino acyl: bring in right aa
-peptidyl: holds growing protein
-exit: leaves to find more aa
-t: transfer, small, made of nucleotides, 2 banding sites → Anticodon: comp to codon on mRNA → Amino acid: on 3' end, one per AA, 20+ types
- Genetic code: 3 nucleotides code for amino aca
- when AA chain finished, folds into shape → shape determines function
- genes turned on/off in diff cells
-lac operon studied e coli to see proteins that work together are translated on the same miRNA
-operon: genes all strung together on the same unt
- Operon: reg system for gene expression in prokaryotes
- Promoter; tells RNA Polymerase where to start transcription
- Operator; on/off switch, nucleotides between promoter + structural genes
- Repressor: protein bound to operator, blocks protein synthesis
- Structural genes: code for protein, 1+ included in same mRNA
- regulation, enzymes only made when needed
- Inducible operon: enz made as needed, triggered by substrate
- repressible operon: enz production stop when enough made
- prokaryotic Translation: happens immediately, no nucleus don't have to wait
- eukaryotes: genes on/off, used at the right time, etc
-differential gene expression: multcell orgs express limited # of gene
- cytoplasmic determinants after zygote, they decide cell function
- Induction: determines cells fate
- pattern formation: org body plan, where body parts are in body decides what it does
- hox genes: control pattern form in org, gradients of morphogens est axes
- reg of gene expression: make diff proteins pacific to DNA
- euchromatin: diffuse, site of DNA transcription
- heterochromatin: condensed, genes not expressed as protein
- cell specializes → net proportion increases
- histones: little tail dudes that grab onto chromatin
- acetyl in euch, methyl for hetero
- enhancers: DNA s activates gene, has control elements
- activators: proteins binds to control elements in enhancer
- transcription factor: proteins bind to prom + enh activators
-fold DNA to express gene
-Random errors in copying DNA
-can be benign or malignant
-neutral: indifferent
-nonsense: misplace stop codon
-single base pair sub: just one AA
-Insert/del: lose one base pair
- frame shift: add one base, changes aa after
- structural:
-deletion: piece lost
-duplication attach to homologue, 2 copies
-inversion: flips and reattaches
-attach to non hom: insertion
- translocation non nom chroms trade pieces
- non disjunction: chroms don’t sep during meiosis
-missina autosomes = dead
- gene family: genes duplicated, mutations make new genes
-pseudogene: genes disabled by mutations
- retroviral insertions show evolutionary relationships
-scars trace history
-Oncogenes Insert DNA, interrupt normal actunty, hepatitis/papilloma
- Ancestral characters: features that existed before species evolved, ex: hair for humans
- shared derived characters: specific features for a group, ex: milk in mammals, feathers in birds
- Body symmetry: arrangement of body
-sponges are special, only animal w/o sym
-radial: don't have head, anemone, sea star
-bilateral: aligned head to tail
- body tissues: layers in body
- diploblast: endoderm, dead layer, ectoderm
- triplblast: mesoderm instead of dead layer
- cladogram: arrangement of orgs by shared traits and order of ev
- body cavities: arrangement of layers in the body
- acoelomate: no space between 3 layers
-pseudocoelomate: gap between mesoderm/endoderm
-coelomates: gap entirely within mesoderm
- ancestral vs shared derived
- ancestral: where we evolved from
- sheared derived traits: similarities between species
- symmetry: sponges have none
-radial: can cut in half any wa
- bilateral: dorsal vs ventral, anterior vs posterior
- nervous systems: sponges have none
- cnidaria/ctenophora: nerve net
- platyhelminthes (flatworms); ladder, ganglia, brain
- nematoda/arthropoda: many ganglia and brain
-echinoderms: nerve ring
- chordates: dorsal nerve chord and brain
-circulatory system: sponges have none
-cnidaria/ctenophora/platyhelminthes have none
- nematoda/arthropoda/echinodermata have open one
-annelida/cephalopoda/chodata have closed one
-digestive system: sponge doesn’t have one
- single opening: two way/incomplete
-cnidaria, ctenophora, platyhelminthes
-double openings: one way/complete
-everything else
- Taxonomy: naming/grouping according to evolutio characteristics
-Linnaeus made system, 7 levels according to structure
- didn’t always work bc looks can be deceiving
- kingdom: animalia KEEP KINGS
-phylum: chordata POTS PLAY
-class: mammalia CLEAN CHESS
-order: carnivora OR ON
-family: hominidae FAMILY FUNNY
-genus: homo GETS GIRLS
-species: homo sapiens SICK STOMACHS
- binomial nomenclature: used to name species
-scientific name: first part is genus, second is descriptor
- Artificial selection: human breed desired traits, ex: pugs, chihuahuas, bananas
- Darwin’s 4 principles of nat selecton.
- genetically diff in pop
- variations inherited
- more kids than can survive (Malthus)
- variations inc reproductive success (fitness)
- Natural selection
-descent w/ mod: life forms descended from prev life forms
- mod by nat sel: inherited traits help survive
- FossI record helps
-law of superposition: undisturbed then old on bottom
- succession of forms: early are more elaborate than current
- ex: oil companies stop drilling when we hit older rock
- found wasp/ant combo
-antenna diff, plates too
- bees evolve in turn from wasps
-homologous structure: same origin, diff function
- ex: bat wing, whale flipper, human hand
- analogous: same function, diff origin
- ex: bird wings and insect wings
- vestigial: reduced, new/no use
- ex: nictitating membrane, ment to protect eyes, remnant is tear duct
-Every living thing has: DNA Gene code, glycolysis/ATP, lipid bilayer, cell membrane
- 2 chromosomes (12/13) bound into our chrom #2
- more similar macro molecules closely related
- Mammals: 4475, Bird: 13387, reptile: 2130C, Amphibian:502 Fish: 29418, Invertebrates: 1262310, unicellular: no one knows
- Biogeography: dist of orgs in world
- could evolve separately or interbreed
-population genetics: nat selec/mendel combo
-pop: interbreeding grp in a species
- gene pool: all genes available
- variation: diff versions of orgs bc genes change
- hardy weinberg principle
-artificial steady state
-genetic recombo doesn’t change gene pool
-idealized pop
- no mutations
- no one leaves or comes in
- chance has no effect
- mating random
- all alleles viable, all orgs reproduce
- frequencies won’t change between generations
- equilibrium: p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 p+q=1 p=dom, q=rec
- determines if change is happening
- measures magnitude/direction
-shows cause
- genetic drift; change in gene pool bc chance
-founder effect: small pop branching off has diff rep of alleles
- pop bottleneck: diff rep in pop not bc of nat selec
-gene flow: alleles moving in/out of pop
- could counteract nat selec
-degeneration: loss of structures thru evolution
- ex: rabbit color, human head size
-directional selection: avg selected against, extremes famored
-ex: finch beak, salmon size, clam size
-freq dep: dec frq of more common phen
-shifting focus on most numerous type
-sexual selection:
-intra: comp between same sex
-inter: one sex chooses one characteristic of other sex
-ex: peacock chooses # of eyes on tail
-reproductive isolation:
-premating: behavioral mating rituals (visual/auditory/chem)
-postmating: survival of offspring
- no homologous chrome in mixed species bc half are from diff species
-modes of speciations
-allopatric: isolated orgs are isolated so evolve separately
-sympatric: no isolation, chrom content is what changes
-ex: diff soil = palm trees flower diff times, only exchange chrome w/ each other
-adaptive radiation: major pattern of macroevolution
-hox genes activate diff times
-coevolution: orgs influence others’ evolution
-mimicry: harmless orgs adopt patterns of scary ones
-convergent evolution: similar selective pressures
-look similar bc enviro same, not really related
-divergent evo: diff selective pressures, start being diff
Endocrine
-diff glands for diff hormones
-pituitary → growth
- pancreas → insulin
-negative feedback: returns system when deviates too much
- steroid: initiate protein synthesis
-diffuse thru plasma membrane
-ex: estrogen/testosterone
-amino acid: affect enzymes, alter rate of protein synth
-can’t diffuse w/o receptor
-insulin/epinephrine
integumentary
- protect body, prim organ is skin
-4 layers
- nerve: network of communication
- epithelial: covers surface
- connective: support
- muscle: helps movement
- Epidermis: outer superficial layer
-outer layer is waterproof, keratin
-inner has melanin
- Dermis: much thicker nan epi
-nerves and hair follicles
-Hair/ nalls: both have keratin
- too much oil = clogged pores
- grow very little every day
- Temp reg sweating and goosebumps, rely on fat
- vitamin: UV exposure = vitamin D
- Also gives info abt enviro to brain
Digestive
-peristalisis: using muscle to push food down
- mech digestion: breaking down food
-chem dig: break down w/ stomach acids
- enters mouth and break down w/ saliva
- cardiac sphincter: keeps food down inside the stomach
-pepsin: main enzyme for break down in stomach
-small intestine is longest organ
-pancreas: produces insulin
-liver: largest internal organ, bile break down fast
- gallbladder: stores excess bile
-villi: absorbs nutrients from small intestine
- large intestine:
-colon: absorbs water from chyme (digested food)
-rest of chyme becomes feces
Skeletal
-5 functions: support, protect, blood cells, reservoir, movement
-bone marrow makes blood
-red: red/white blood cells and platelets
-yellow: stores fat and energy
-osteoclasts: use calcium, help muscle contract
-osteoblasts: bone forming cells, dev from fetal cart
-cartilage: connective tissue, cushions joint
-synovial fluid: bags in joints for good movement
-diff types of joints
-ball/socket: most movement, ex: hips
-pivot: main rotation, ex: elbow
-hinge: one fits into concave, ex: knees
-gliding: back/forth, side to side, ex: wrist
- suture: in skull, no movement
-tendons: attach muscles to bones
-ligaments: hold muscles together at joints
Immune
-lymphocyte: white blood cell in spec (B or T)
- antigen: foreign substance
-pathogen: infectious disease
- B cells: produce antibodies, bind to specific viruses
- 2 trillion in blood, cluster around lymph nodes
-T cells: focus on fluids, attack host cells instead of pathogens
- helpers: direct other immune cells, use cytokines
- cytotoxic: are killers, kills affected cells by apoptosis
-suppressor: stop immune response and autoimmune diseases
-vaccines expose body to pathogen to build immunity
-inactive so don’t cause disease, memory builds
Excretory
-kidney functions: maintain ph in blood and homeostasis
-filtration: removes waste from blood
-secretion: get rid of matter we don’t need and store it
-excretion: get waste out of body
-reabsorption: take stuff that can still be used
-renal cortex: connects w/ blood and nephrons
-renal pelvis: different wathway for waste, to ureters and bladder
-renal artery: trans into glomerulus
Muscular
-skeletal muscle: moved consciously
-smooth muscle: involuntary, line hollow organs
-cardiac muscle: involuntary, network, pumps blood in heart
-myofibrils: make up fibers
-antagonistic pairs: used to reverse action so not stuck in one position
Nervous
-dendrite receives signals from other neurons
-cell body: where nucleus/organelles are
-axons: where impulses are conducted on cell
-neurotransmitter: chem diffuses across synapse
-binds to dendrite
-sensory neurons: receive sensory info, give to cent nervous system
-interneurons: transmit w/in local
-cent nervous system: made of brain and spinal cord
-peripheral nervous system
-somatic: external info to cent, makes voluntary actions
-autonomic: impulses to internal, involuntary bodily functions
- sympathetic: control organs during stress, ex: sweating, pupil dilation
- parasympathetic: controls when body’s at rest, while sleeping
Circulatory
-blood vessels: circulate blood
-arteries: bring oxy to other blood cells
-connective, smooth muscle, endothelial
-capillaries: microscopic, one cell thick
-veins: deoxy back to heart
-valves prevent backward flow
-4 chambers in heart
-right/left atriums and ventricles
-right has low oxy, left has high oxy
-
- 4 components of blood
-plasma: yellow fluid, carries minerals and nutrients
-red blood cells: made in marrow, hemoglobin binds w/ oxygen
-platelets: clot blood, fibrin weaves fibers together
-white blood cells: immunize body
Respiratory
-epiglottis: flap stops from inhaling food
-trachea: windpipe
-nasal cavity: nose/mouth
-capillaries on alveoli exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide thru diffusion
-diaphragm shoves organs out of the way for lungs
-intercostal muscles: in between ribs
- larynx: triangle shaped