AP European History Lecture Notes

Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration

1.1: Context of the Renaissance

• Renaissance: Period of cultural rebirth from 14th-17th century in Europe, characterized by interest in classical learning, humanism, and arts.
  • Humanism: Philosophy emphasizing the value of humans and critical thinking, reaction against Middle Ages' scholasticism.
  • Art: Focus on classical forms, realism; artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo; techniques like perspective, chiaroscuro.
  • Science: Scientific discoveries by Galileo, Kepler; development of the scientific method.
  • Literature: Writers like Shakespeare, Cervantes; spread of literature through the printing press.

1.2: Italian Renaissance

• Period of cultural growth in Italy, 14th-17th century; influenced by Greek and Roman texts, patronage by families like the Medici.
• Impact on Western culture, new artistic techniques, famous works by Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael.

1.3: Northern Renaissance

• Cultural movement in Northern Europe, 15th-16th centuries, characterized by humanism, religious reformation, artistic innovation.
• Key figures: Albrecht Dürer, Jan van Eyck, Desiderius Erasmus, William Shakespeare.

1.4: Printing Press

• Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century; revolutionized dissemination of information, increased literacy, spread ideas.

1.5: New Monarchies from 1450 to 1648

• Emergence of centralized monarchies in Europe; factors include decline of feudalism, growth of trade, Renaissance ideas.
• Examples: France, Spain, England, Russia.

1.6: Age of Exploration

• European exploration from 15th-17th century, seeking new trade routes, resources, and territories.
• Major explorers: Columbus, da Gama, Magellan, Drake.
• Consequences include colonization, global trade, cultural exchange, exploitation, and slavery.

1.7: Colonial Rivals

• European powers expanded their influence, leading to conflicts and rivalries for resources and territory.
• Effects include displacement and exploitation of indigenous populations, introduction of new technologies and political systems.

1.8: Columbian Exchange

• Exchange of plants, animals, and diseases between Old World and New World post-Columbus.
• Impact: Introduction of new crops and animals, spread of diseases, cultural exchanges.

1.9: The Slave Trade and the Triangular Trade

• Began in the 15th century, involving the transportation of African slaves to the Americas.
• Triangular trade involved Europe, Africa, and the Americas, trading goods and slaves.

1.10: The Commercial Revolution

• 16th-18th century period of economic expansion, characterized by growth in trade, capitalism, banking, and urbanization.

1.11: Causation in the Renaissance and Age of Discovery

• Driven by desire for knowledge, wealth, and power; Renaissance laid groundwork for scientific and artistic innovations of Age of Discovery.

Unit 2: Age of Reformation

2.1: Contextualizing 16th and 17th-Century Challenges and Developments

• Pre-Luther Reformers: John Wycliffe, Jan Hus, Erasmus, Savonarola; criticized the Catholic Church, called for reforms.
• Critiques of the Catholic Church: Corruption, papal authority, sale of indulgences, use of Latin in services.
• Economic Developments: Rise of capitalism, merchant class, new industries, and colonial exploitation.
• Political Developments: Rise of nation-states, religious conflicts, absolutism, colonialism, Enlightenment.

2.2: Luther and the Protestant Reformation

• Martin Luther: German theologian, criticized Catholic Church, wrote 95 Theses, emphasized faith and Bible.
• John Calvin: French theologian, emphasized predestination, established theocratic government in Geneva.
• Protestant Beliefs: Sola Scriptura, Sola Fide, Priesthood of all believers, justification by faith.

2.3: Protestant Reform Continues

• State Over Church?: Shift in power from Catholic Church to state; establishment of state churches in Protestant countries.
• Groups against State: Anabaptists, Radical Reformers, Peasants, Protestant Dissenters, Waldensians.

2.4: Wars of Religion

• German Religious Conflict: Peasants' War, Schmalkaldic Wars, Peace of Augsburg.
• French Religious Conflicts: Wars of Religion, St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, Edict of Nantes.
• Thirty Years' War: Major conflict in Central Europe, ended with Peace of Westphalia.
• Manipulative States: Used Reformation to gain power, control populations, justify persecution.

2.5: The Catholic Reformation

• Response to Protestant Reformation; key figures Pope Paul III, St. Ignatius of Loyola, St. Teresa of Avila.
• Council of Trent, establishment of Jesuits, reforms in the Catholic Church.

2.6: 16th-Century Society & Politics in Europe

• Social Classes: Nobility, clergy, bourgeoisie, peasants, limited rights for women.
• Community and Leisure: Festivals, fairs, sports, church as social center.

2.7: Mannerism and Baroque Art

• Mannerism: Artistic style with elongated proportions, exaggerated poses, key figures include Michelangelo, El Greco.
• Baroque Art: Dramatic, ornate style, key figures include Bernini, Rubens, Rembrandt, Velázquez.

2.8: Causation in the Age of Reformation and the Wars of Religion

• Religious Factors: Dissatisfaction with Catholic Church, formation of Protestant denominations.
• Political Factors: Rise of nation-states, decline of feudalism, political ambitions.
• Social and Economic Factors: Renaissance, rise of humanism, growth of trade and commerce.

Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism

3.1: Context of State Building from 1648-1815

• Different Levels of Sovereignty: Dynastic, territorial, popular sovereignty; language minority groups contested certain governments.
• Rise of Absolutism and Challenges: Monarchs sought centralized power; faced resistance from nobility, religious groups, Enlightenment ideas.

3.2: The English Civil War and the Glorious Revolution

• English Civil War: Conflict between Royalists and Parliamentarians, led to execution of King Charles I, rise of Oliver Cromwell.
• The Glorious Revolution: Bloodless revolution in 1688, William of Orange becomes king, establishment of constitutional monarchy.

3.3: Continuities and Changes to Economic Practice and Development from 1648-1815

• Agricultural Revolution: Increase in food production, new farming techniques, urbanization.
• Commercial Revolution: Growth of trade, capitalism, emergence of modern banking.

3.4: Economic Development and Mercantilism

• Economic Development: Increase in trade, industry, capitalism, urbanization.
• Mercantilism: Economic theory promoting exports, limiting imports.
• Consumer Culture: Rise of consumer culture, advertising, marketing.
• The Slave Trade: Transatlantic trade of enslaved Africans.

3.5: The Dutch Golden Age

• Economic Growth: Booming economy, trade networks.
• Artistic Development: Iconic works by Rembrandt, Vermeer.
• Political Power: Major player in European politics.
• Decline: Late 17th-century decline due to competition and internal problems.

3.6: Balance of Power

• Wars of King Louis XIV: Series of wars expanding France's power.
• Decline of Empires: Ottoman, Mughal, Spanish, Portuguese empires declined.
• The Military Revolution: New military tactics and weapons, expansion of standing armies.

3.7: Absolutist Approaches to Power

• Absolutism and Divine Rights: Monarchs with absolute power, justified by divine right.
• Foundations of French Absolutism: Louis XIV, centralized bureaucracy, weakened nobility.
• Russian Absolutism: Tsars with centralized power, expansionist policies.

3.8: Comparison in the Age of Absolutism and Constitutionalism

• Absolutism vs. Constitutionalism: Different approaches to governance; absolutism emphasizes monarch's power, constitutionalism emphasizes rule of law.

Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments

4.1: Contextualizing the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

• Modes of Thought: Humanism, individualism, intellectualism.
• The Enlightenment: Emphasis on reason, science, individualism; key thinkers include John Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant.
• Scientific Revolution: New ideas in physics, astronomy, biology; key figures Copernicus, Galileo, Newton.

4.2: The Scientific Revolution

• New Ideas and Methods: Empiricism, mathematical reasoning, scientific method, heliocentric model.
• Anatomy and Medicine: Vesalius, Harvey, Leeuwenhoek; advancement in anatomy, circulatory system, microorganisms.
• Astronomy and Alchemy: Discovery of heliocentric model, laws of planetary motion; alchemy as precursor to chemistry.

4.3: The Enlightenment

• Political Theories: Social contract, natural rights, separation of powers, laissez-faire economics.
• Womens Rights: Advocates like Wollstonecraft, de Gouges; discussions by Enlightenment thinkers.
• Economic Theories: Physiocracy, Adam Smith's classical liberalism.
• Religious Theories: Deism, natural religion, skepticism, toleration.

4.4: 18th-Century Society and Demographics

• Population Growth: Decline in mortality, increase due to agricultural revolution, trade growth.
• Medicinal Advancement: Vaccination, inoculation, improvements in surgery.
• Agricultural Revolution: New farming techniques, increase in food production, urbanization.
• Urbanization: Growth of cities, socioeconomic impacts.

4.5: 18th-Century Culture and Arts

• Literature: Rise of novels, Enlightenment literature, Romantic movement.
• Music: Baroque period, Classical period.
• Art: Rococo style, Neoclassical style.
• Fashion: Rise of elaborate fashion, Industrial Revolution's impact on textile production.

4.6: Enlightened and Other Approaches to Power

• Rise of Prussia: Military expansion, Frederick William I and II, Frederick the Great.
• Enlightened Despots: Napoleon Bonaparte, Maria Theresa, Joseph II, Frederick William I and II, Catherine the Great.

Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century

5.1: Contextualizing 18th-Century States

• Economic Expansion: Growth of trade, technology, colonialism; impact on middle class, urbanization, inequality.
• Politics: Rise of absolute monarchies, Enlightenment's impact, major wars like Seven Years' War, French Revolution.
• Philosophical Values: Rationalism, empiricism, secularism, individualism, humanism.

5.2: The Rise of Global Markets

• Global Market Economies: Expansion of trade networks, colonialism, new technologies.
• Population Growth: Improved agriculture, medicine, trade.
• Production Growth: Industrial Revolution's impact on manufacturing.
• Transatlantic Slave Trade: Forced migration, economic impact.
• Commercial Revolution: Economic expansion, rise of capitalism, colonial empires.
• Price Revolution: Inflation from New World gold and silver.
• Innovations in Finance: Banking systems, stock markets, paper money.
• Commercial Rivalry and Maritime Influence: European powers' competition, impact on global economy.

5.3: Britain's Ascendency

• English Protestants vs. Catholics: Conflict during Glorious Revolution.
• British Colonialism and Commercial Interests: Colonization, triangular trade, economic growth.
• The Seven Years' War: Global conflict involving major European powers.
• The American Revolution: Break from British rule, established United States.

5.4: The French Revolution

• Causes: Economic crisis, social inequality, Enlightenment ideas, political corruption, food shortages.
• Phases: National Assembly, Reign of Terror, The Directory.

5.5: Effects of the French Revolution

• End of Ancien Régime, rise of Napoleon, spread of revolutionary ideas, reforms in France.
• The Haitian Revolution: First successful slave revolt, inspired other movements.

5.6: Napoleon's Rise, Dominance, and Defeat

• Napoleon's Ascendence: Military conquests, establishment of the French Empire.
• Napoleon's Code: Legal code emphasizing equality before the law.
• Napoleon's Fall: Defeat at Leipzig, Waterloo, exile.
• The Hundred Days' War: Brief return to power, final defeat at Waterloo.

5.7: Causation in the Age of the Scientific Revolution

• Rediscovery of Classic Works: Influence on Renaissance and Enlightenment.
• Spread of the Enlightenment: Impact on politics, science, society.
• Political Ideas: Enlightenment's influence on liberalism, socialism, communism.
• Religion: Rise of deism, decline of Church authority.
• Everyday Life: Impact of scientific discoveries, technological advancements, social change.

5.8: Romanticism

• Reaction against Enlightenment's emphasis on reason; emphasized emotion, imagination, individualism, nature.
• Romantic Art and Literature: Key figures include William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, William Blake.

5.9: Continuity and Change in the 18th-Century States

• Continuity: Monarchy, aristocracy, Christianity.
• Change: Enlightenment's influence, revolutions, industrialization, nationalism.

Unit 6: Industrialization and Its Effects

6.1: Contextualizing Industrialization and Its Origins and Effects

• Industrialization: Shift from manual labor to mechanized production, beginning in Britain.
• Mechanized Production: Textile industry innovations, growth of factories.
• Urbanization: Migration to cities, growth of urban centers.
• Government Reactions: Labor laws, trade barriers, welfare programs.
• Social Changes: Rise of working class, labor unions, political movements.

6.2: The Spread of Industry Throughout Europe

• Britain Takes the Lead: First industrialized country, textile industry, steam power.
• Luddites: Protested against mechanization taking jobs.
• Innovations of the First Industrialization: Key inventions like spinning jenny, steam engine, power loom.
• Industrialization Spreads: Impact on global trade, economy, politics.
• Agrarian Consequences: Urbanization, mechanization, specialization.

6.3: Second-Wave Industrialization and Its Effects

• Second Industrial Revolution: New technologies like telephone, electric power.
• Mass Society: Rise of mass production, advertisement, leisure, politics.
• Socioeconomic Class Structure: Upper, middle, working, underclass.
• Cult of Domesticity: Women's roles in the home.
• Nuclear Family: Ideal family structure, impact of industrialization.
• First Signs of Reform: Labor movements, government intervention.

6.5: The Concert of Europe and European Conservatism

• Congress of Vienna: Reorganization after Napoleonic Wars; balance of power.
• The Concert of Europe: International relations for collective security.
• Congress of Vienna Main Representatives: Goals of Metternich, Alexander I, Talleyrand, Castlereagh, Hardenberg.

6.6: Revolutions from 1815-1914

• Revolutions: 1830, 1848, Paris Commune, Russian Revolution of 1905.
• Early 19th Century Political Revolts: Greek War of Independence, Decembrist Revolt, Polish Rebellion.
• Russian Reformers and Reforms: Peter the Great, Catherine the Great, Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II.

6.7: Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements

• The "Age of -Isms": Nationalism, imperialism, socialism, communism, fascism.
• Prominent Advocates of the -Isms: Key figures like Karl Marx, Adam Smith.
• Movements for Rights and Reform: French Revolution, Chartists, abolitionists, women's suffrage, socialists, trade unions.
• Mass-Based Political Parties: Conservative and liberal parties in Britain and France.

6.9: Institutional Responses and Reform

• Sanitation and Public Health: Reforms to improve living conditions.
• Crime: Rise in crime, development of new institutions.
• Economics: Shift from agrarian to manufacturing economy.
• Education: Public education, focus on practical skills.

6.10: Causation in the Age of Industrialization

• The Great British Powerhouse: Industrial growth in the UK.
• The Birth of the Working Class: Rise of labor unions, political movements.

Unit 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

7.1: Context of 19th Century Politics

• Key Developments: Industrial Revolution, nationalism, imperialism, liberalism, conservatism, Marxism.
• Major Events: Revolutions of 1848, Congress of Vienna, Crimean War, American Civil War.

7.2: Nationalism

• Development: Enlightenment ideas, industrialization, revolutionary movements.
• Spread: Europe, Asia, Africa, Latin America.
• Impact: Formation and reconfiguration of nation-states, conflict, globalization.

7.3: National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

• Unification of Italy: Led by Garibaldi, Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II.
• Unification of Germany: Led by Otto von Bismarck, formation of German Empire.
• Diplomatic Tensions: France vs. Germany, Austria vs. Hungary.
• The Crimean War: Conflict involving Britain, France, Ottoman Empire, Russia.
• The Balkan Wars: Conflicts leading to tensions in Europe.

7.4: Darwinism and Social Darwinism

• Darwinism: Scientific theory of evolution by natural selection.
• Social Darwinism: Misapplication of Darwin's ideas to society and politics.

7.5: The Age of Progress and Modernity

• Industrialization: Mass production, technology, urbanization.
• Technological Advancements: Telephone, light bulb, automobile.
• Urbanization: Growth of cities, challenges and opportunities.

7.6: New Imperialism: Motivations and Methods

• New vs. Old Imperialism: Focus on political and strategic reasons.
• Motivations: Economic interests, nationalism, strategic interests, Social Darwinism, religious motivations.
• Methods: Military force, economic exploitation, cultural hegemony, diplomacy, propaganda.

7.7: Imperialism's Global Effects

• Responses: Resistance, diplomacy, collaboration, nationalism.
• Rebellion: Boxer Rebellion, Indian Rebellion, Mau Mau Uprising, Algerian War of Independence.
• Effects on European Societies: Economic, political, social impacts.

7.8: 19th-Century Culture and Arts

• Romanticism: Emphasis on emotion, imagination, individualism.
• Modern Art: Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Cubism, Expressionism.
• Women in Modern Culture: Growing representation and recognition, challenges.

7.9: Causation in 19th Century Perspectives and Political Developments

• Key Perspectives: Determinism, positivism, historicism.
• Influence on Politics: Socialism, communism, welfare state, imperialism.

Unit 8: 20th-Century Global Conflicts

8.1: Context of 20th Century Global Conflicts

• Political Context: Divided Europe, rise of totalitarian regimes, Treaty of Versailles.
• Economic Context: Great Depression, unemployment, competition for resources.
• Social Context: Nationalism, ethnic tensions, rise of fascism.

8.2: World War I

• Causes: Imperialism, nationalism, militarism, alliances, assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
• Military Advancements: Tanks, poison gas, airplanes, machine guns, submarines.
• Global Conflict: Western Front, Eastern Front, Armenian Genocide, Easter Rebellion.
• Negotiating Peace: Paris Peace Conference, Treaty of Versailles.

8.3: The Russian Revolution and Its Effects

• Roots: Social, economic, political conditions, industrialization, unrest.
• Russian Revolution: Overthrow of Tsarist government, Bolshevik takeover.
• Russian Civil War: Bolshevik Red Army vs. White Army, establishment of Soviet Union.

8.4: Versailles Conference and Peace Settlement

• Treaty of Versailles: Harsh penalties on Germany, establishment of League of Nations.
• Impact: Rise of Nazi Germany, failure of League of Nations.

8.5: Global Economic Crisis: The Great Depression

• Causes: Stock market crash, overproduction, bank failures, protectionism.
• Impact in Europe: Unemployment, political instability, rise of extremism.
• New Economic Theories: Keynesian economics, Marxist economics, Austrian economics.

8.6: Fascism and Totalitarianism

• Fascism: Authoritarianism, nationalism, suppression of opposition.
• Totalitarianism: State control over all aspects of society.
• Fascist Leaders: Hitler, Mussolini, Franco.
• Fascism in Eastern Europe: Influence on countries like Hungary, Romania.

8.7: Europe During the Interwar Period

• Post-WWI Europe: Economic challenges, rise of nationalism, ethnic conflict.

8.8: World War II

• Causes: Treaty of Versailles, rise of fascism, appeasement failures.
• Theatres of War: European, Middle Eastern/African, Pacific.

8.9: The Holocaust

• Anti-Semitism: Hostility towards Jews, rise in Nazi Germany.
• Nuremberg Laws: Legal discrimination against Jews.
• Kristallnacht: Pogrom against Jews.
• The Holocaust: Systematic extermination of Jews, concentration and death camps.
• Liberation: Allied liberation of camps.

8.10: 20th-Century Cultural, Intellectual, and Artistic Developments

• Advancements in Physics: Quantum mechanics, relativity, nuclear physics.
• Lost Generation: Disillusionment post-WWI, impact on WWII.
• Women Involvement: Role in workforce, military during WWII.

8.11: Continuity and Changes in the Age of Global Conflict

• Outcomes of War: Treaty of Versailles, WWII aftermath.
• Intellectual and Cultural Movements: Existentialism, Beat Generation, feminism, postmodernism.
• Demographics: Population growth, urbanization, aging population, migration.
• Economics: Economic growth, globalization, capitalism spread.

Unit 9: Cold War and Contemporary Europe

9.1: Context of the Cold War and Contemporary Europe

• The End of WWII: German and Japanese surrender, establishment of United Nations.
• Rising Discourse: Decolonization, Cold War, human rights, globalization.
• Important Figures: Churchill, Stalin, Khrushchev, Adenauer, de Gaulle.

9.2: Rebuilding Europe After World War II

• Marshall Plan: US economic aid to rebuild Europe.
• European Integration: Formation of the European Coal and Steel Community, European Economic Community.

9.3: The Cold War

• Origins: Ideological differences, Soviet expansion, formation of NATO.
• Key Events: Berlin Blockade, Korean War, Cuban Missile Crisis, Berlin Wall.
• End: Gorbachev's reforms, fall of Berlin Wall, dissolution of Soviet Union.

9.4: Two Super Powers Emerge.

• The Rise of the West: Technological innovation, colonialism, capitalism.
• Behind the Iron Curtain: Soviet control in Eastern Europe, life under communism.
• Discontent with Communism: Economic inefficiencies, political repression, nationalism.

9.5: Postwar Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Atrocities

• Nationalism: Tensions post-war, ethnic conflicts.
• Ethnic Conflict: Yugoslavia, Northern Ireland.
• Atrocities: WWII impact, postwar violence.

9.6: Contemporary Western Democracies

• Democratic Features: Representative democracy, rule of law, separation of powers.

9.7: The Fall of Communism

• Fall of Stalin: Power struggle, Khrushchev's reforms.
• Rise of Brezhnev: Stability, economic issues.
• Gorbachev's Reforms: Glasnost and perestroika.
• End of USSR: Dissolution of Soviet Union, end of Cold War.

9.8: 20th-Century Feminism

• Waves: First-wave (suffrage), second-wave (reproductive rights, workplace discrimination), third-wave (intersectionality, gender identity).
• Impact: Legal and policy changes, ongoing challenges.

9.9: Decolonization

• Causes: Nationalism, post-WWII weakening of European powers.
• Methods: Peaceful negotiations, violent struggles.
• Impact: Emergence of new nation-states, economic and political challenges.

9.10: The European Union

• Formation: From European Economic Community to EU.
• Institutions: European Council, Commission, Parliament, Council.
• Challenges: Brexit, nationalism, migration.

9.11: Migrations within and to Europe Since 1945

• Waves: Post-colonial migration, European migration, global migration.
• Challenges: Integration, political issues.

9.12: Technological Developments Since 1914

• Transportation: Automobiles, airplanes, trains.
• Communication: Radio, television, computers.
• Warfare: Nuclear weapons, missiles, drones.
• Medicine: Antibiotics, vaccines, medical technology.

9.13: Globalization

• Drivers: Technology, transportation, trade liberalization.
• Effects: Economic growth, cultural exchange, inequality, environmental impact.
• Criticisms: Job losses, cultural homogenization, exploitation, environmental degradation.

9.14: 20th- and 21st-Century Culture, Arts, and Demographic Trends

• Culture and Arts: Modernism, postmodernism, pop art, minimalism.
• Demographic Trends: Population growth, urbanization, aging population, migration, gender equality.