Nationalism in India Modern nationalism in India grew through the struggle against British rule. Different groups united despite having varied experiences and ideas about freedom. Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress worked to bring these groups together.
There were challenges and conflicts in achieving unity among these groups. This chapter focuses on the non-cooperation, and civil disobedience movements of the 1920s. These movements played a key role in spreading the idea of nationalism.
Various social groups were involved in and influenced by these movements. The First World War, Khilafat and Non-cooperation. After 1919, India's national movement reached more areas and involved more people with new ways of fighting against British rule. The World War I brought economic and political problems like higher taxes, rising prices, forced soldier recruitment, crop failures and a deadly influenza outbreak causing a lot of suffering.
People hoped things would get better after the war. But when that did not happen, a new leader introduced a new way to continue the struggle. Who was that leader and what was that new way? Let us see.
The idea of Satyagraha Mahatma Gandhi came back to India in 1915 after using his non-violent method of Satyagraha in South Africa. Satyagraha focused on fighting injustice through truth and non-violence without using physical force. Gandhi believed that non-violence could bring Indians together and led Sachagraha movements in different areas. In 1917, he helped peasants in Champaran, that is in Bihar, and Kedah, that is in Gujarat, to fight against unfair systems and push for lower taxes.
In 1918, he organized a Sachagraha for cotton mill workers in Ahmadabad to support their rights. The Rowlatt Act In 1919, Gandhiji launched a nationwide protest, that is Satyagraha, against the Rowlatt Act, which gave the British government power to suppress political activities and detain people without trial. Gandhiji organized a hartal, that is strike on April 6th, with rallies, strikes and closed shops to oppose the act. The British responded by arresting Gandhiji, imposing martial law in Amritsar. and taking harsh actions against protesters.
On April 13th, General Dyer's massacre at Jillion-Valabag killed hundreds and caused widespread anger and violence. The British retaliated with severe repression, including public humiliation and violence against protesters. Gandhiji then ended the protest, realizing that a broader movement was needed. He saw a chance to unite Hindus and Muslims by supporting the Khilafat issue, which defended the Ottoman Caliphate. In September 1920, Gandhiji convinced Congress leaders to start the non-cooperation movement to support both the Khilafat and Indian self-rule, that is Swaraj.
Why non-cooperation? In his book, Hind Swaraj, Gandhiji said British rule in India depended on Indian cooperation. He believed that if Indians stopped cooperating, British rule would end quickly.
The non-cooperation movement was planned in stages, starting with boycotts and civil disobedience. But there was a debate within the Congress about this plan. The non-cooperation movement was finally accepted at the Congress session in Nagpur in December 1920. Different strands within the movement.
The non-cooperation Khilafat movement started in January 1921. Different social groups joined the movement, each with their own goals. They all wanted Swaraj, that is self-rule. But what Swaraj meant varied for each group. The movement in the towns.
The non-cooperation movement saw lots of middle class people getting involved, including students, teachers and lawyers. People boycotted foreign goods. which cut imports and boosted Indian textile production.
the movement slowed because khadi cloth was too costly for many and there weren't enough indian alternatives to the british institutions leading some people to return to british institutions for their study rebellion in the countryside the non-cooperation movement spread from cities to the countryside involving peasant and tribal struggles in avadh baba ramachandra led peasants against high rents and forced labor helping to form an Audh Kisan Sabha with Jawarlal Nehru. The movement saw attacks on landlords and merchants, and some local leaders misused Gandhiji's name to justify extreme actions. In the Gudam hills of Andhra Pradesh, a tribal leader, Aluri Sitaramaraju, led a guerrilla movement against British forest policies and forced labour. Sitaramaraju have respect for Gandhi ideas, but he has chosen the armed fight against British.
Swaraj in the plantations Workers in Assam wanted freedom to leave plantations and return to their villages. During the non-cooperation movement, they tried to leave but faced harsh police beatings. They hoped for land and improved conditions, but were stopped by strikes and police.
Their actions were part of the large national movement and showed their support for Gandhi's vision towards civil disobedience. In February 1922, Gandhiji ended the non-cooperation movement because it was becoming violent and people needed better training. Congress leaders were split, some like C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru wanted to work within the British councils while others like Nehru and Bose wanted more direct action. The global economic depression made life worse in India and the Simon Commission, with no Indian members, faced strong protests.
In response, Congress, led by Jarlal Nehru, demanded full independence, that is, Purnaswaraj, and set January 26, 1930 as Independence Day, although the initial celebrations were modest. The Salt March and the civil disobedience movement. Gandhiji used salt as a symbol to unite India and sent a letter to Vaisra Irwin on January 31, 1930, demanding the end of the salt tax, among other things.
The salt tax was important because salt was essential for everyone, making it a clear sign of British oppression. Gandhiji's letter was a warning. If the demands weren't met by March 11, Congress... would start a civil disobedience campaign. When Irwin refused to negotiate, Gandhi began his salt march on March 12, 1930, walking 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi with 78 volunteers.
The march lasted 24 days. Gandhiji spoke to many people and reached Dandi on April 6, where he made salt and broke the law. The civil disobedience movement began encouraging people to break British laws, boycott foreign goods, picket liquor shops and ignore forest laws. As the movement drew, the British government arrested Congress leaders, causing violent clashes and harsh repression. Abdul Ghaffar Khan's arrest in April 1930 led to the protests in Peshawar and Gandhi's arrest caused further violence in Cholapur.
Gandhi ended the movement in March 1931. and signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, agreeing to attend a conference and the government agreeing to release prisoners. After the conference failed, the government intensified repression, leading Gandhiji to restart the movement, but it lost its momentum by 1934. How participants saw the movement? Rich peasants like the Patidars and Jats joined the civil disobedience movement.
because falling crop prices and high taxes hurt them. They hoped Swaraj would lower these taxes. But they were disappointed when nothing changed after the movement ended in 1931. Poor peasants struggling with rent due to the depression wanted their unpaid rent forgiven and supported radical leaders. Congress was careful not to fully support these radical ideas causing tension with poorer peasants.
Business people who prospered during World War I supported the movement to gain economic freedom. and end colonial trade restrictions. Leaders like Purushottam Das Thakur Das and G.D.
Birla supported the movement initially but became concerned about its militant and socialist aspects. Industrial workers joined selectively, such as in Nagpur, but mostly stayed separate from the Congress. Workers participated in strikes and rallies and supported some Gandhian ideas but were not fully included. in Congress's plan.
Women played a big role in the movement by joining protests and picketing, but traditional views on their roles continued. Gandhiji and Congress were slow to let women take on leadership roles, focusing more on their symbolic presence than actual authority. The limits of civil disobedience. The concept of Swaraj did not resonate with everyone, including the Dalits, who began calling themselves Dalit.
or oppressed in the 1930s. The Congress had often ignored Dalits to avoid upsetting higher caste Hindus. Gandhiji, however, believed that Swaraj couldn't be achieved without ending untouchability. He worked to improve conditions for Dalits, called them Harijan, children of God, and fought for their rights to temples and public facilities. Despite Gandhiji's efforts, Many Dalit leaders preferred political solutions like reserved seats and separate electorates.
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a key Dalit leader, clashed with Gandhiji over separate electorates for Dalits. Gandhiji's opposition led to a fast on to death and eventually the Pune Pact was signed in 1932, giving reserved seats but through general elections. The Dalit movement remained cautious about the Congress-led national movement. Many Muslims felt alienated from Congress after the non-cooperation Caliphate movement, especially due to the association with Hindu nationalist groups.
Negotiations for Muslim representation in future assemblies failed, leading to distrust and limited Muslim participation in the civil disobedience movement. The Sense of Collective Belonging Nationalism grew as people felt united through shared struggles and cultural elements. History, folklore and symbols helped build this sense of unity.
In the 20th century, Bharat Mata became a key symbol of India's identity, created by Bakim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Abanindranath Tagore depicted Bharat Mata as calm and spiritual, symbolizing nationalism. Nationalists revived Indian folklore. collecting folk tales and songs to celebrate traditional culture. Rabindranath Tagore and Natasha Sastry played key roles in preserving and promoting these traditions.
Symbols like the tricolour flags from the Swadeshi movement and Gandhiji's Swaraj flag became symbol of resistance. These symbols helped nationalist leaders inspire pride and unity among people. Indian historians highlighted India's past achievements to challenge British views of Indian backwardness.
However, focusing on Hindu achievements sometimes left out non-Hindu communities, causing tensions. Conclusion In the early 20th century, anger against British rule brought different Indian groups together to fight for independence. The Congress led by Gandhiji tried to unite these groups with a common movement but different goals caused frequent disagreements. India's struggle for freedom had many voices and conflicting demands. Quit India Movement The Crips mission failed and World War II caused unrest, leading Gandhiji to start the Quit India Movement, which called for the British to leave India.
On 14 July 1942, the Congress Working Committee approved the Quit India Resolution and Gandhi gave his do-or-die speech on 8th August 1942 in Bombay. Many people joined the movement, including students, workers, peasants and leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan, with women like Matangini Hajra taking part. The British used strong measures to stop the movement, but it took more than a year to put an end to the protests and civil disobedience.
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