Perhaps the most famous story from ancient Iraq is the Epic of Gilgamesh, a story about a quest for meaning and immortality. The adventurous ruler seeks to secure his own immortality, only to be foiled time and again along the way. The Epic of Gilgamesh, composed in the 2nd millennium BCE, that's nearly 4,000 years ago, was a magisterial piece of literature. that was used amongst other things to train scribes to read and write.
The story gained such popularity that it influenced the most famous book known to humanity, the Bible. In the end, our hero learns that his secret to immortality is not to be found with some magical plant or decision of the gods, but with the memory that he leaves behind through his great accomplishments. Most people may have heard the name of Gilgamesh, but have never taken the time to actually read the epic.
Don't worry. We will help you get the gist of the Epic of Gilgamesh and hope to help you understand, in some ways, how the ideas expressed in its epic have impacted the Bible. Our story begins with the narrator praising some of these wondrous deeds and attributes of the ancient king of the city of Uruk, he who saw the wellspring.
The foundations of the land, who knew the world's ways, was wise in all things. He, it was, who studied seats of power everywhere. Full knowledge of it all he gained.
This knowledge that he gained was no ordinary type of information. Gilgamesh learned the secrets from before the time of the worldwide flood. The reader is encouraged to look upon the mighty city of Uruk that Gilgamesh had constructed. He built the walls of ramparted Uruk, the lustrous treasury of hallowed Ianna. See its upper wall, which girds it like a cord.
Gaze at the lower course, which no one can equal. Mount the wooden staircase. There from days of old, approach Ianna, the dwelling of Ishtar, which no future king, no human being can equal.
God up, pace out the walls of Uruk. Study the foundation terrace and examine the brickwork. One square mile of city, one square mile of gardens, one square mile of clay pits, a half square mile of Ishtar's dwelling. Three and a half square miles is the measure of Uruk.
One of the traditions in ancient Mesopotamia was for a king to record mighty deeds and to place them in a box and bury the box in a foundation of a major structure or a city wall. This is known as a foundation deposit. When a future king would rebuild a structure because it was worn down and needed to be rebuilt, they would often look for a foundation deposit.
In this way, kings could leave messages for the gods and for future rulers in these foundation boxes. The Epic of Gilgamesh is said to have been just such a deposit. Open the foundation box of cedar, release its lock of bronze, raise the lid upon its hidden contents, take up and read from the lapis tablet of all the miseries that he, Gilgamesh, came through.
What Gilgamesh experienced was of extraordinary difficulty, and the lessons he learned from these hardships were captured in this story. Gilgamesh was no ordinary king, part human, part divine. He was the perfect image of a hero, surpassing all kings, for his stature renowned. Heroic offspring of Uruk, a charging wild bull, towering Gilgamesh is uncannily perfect. We learn from the beginning that this mighty warrior worked tirelessly to search for a way to obtain immortality.
Opening passes in the mountains, digging wells at the highlands verge, traversing the ocean, The vast sea to the sun's rising, exploring the furthest reaches of the earth, seeking everywhere for eternal life. He was quite the specimen. The locks of his hair grew thick as a grain field. His teeth gleamed like the rising sun. His hair was dark as deep blue strands of wool.
Eleven cupids, about sixteen feet six inches, was his height. His chest, four cupids, about 6 feet. A triple.
cupid his feet four and a half feet his leg six times twelve his stride was six times twelve cupids his great size and power made him a great hero but also made it possible for him to abuse his people Gilgamesh could wrestle with 50 companions wearing out young men every day he kept the young men of Uruk fearful of mistreatment in ramparted Uruk he strode back and forth lording it like a wild bull, his head thrust high. The onslaught of his weapons had no equal. His companion stood forth by his game stick.
He was harrying the young men of Uruk beyond reason. Gilgamesh would leave no son to his father. Day and night he would rampage fiercely.
Not only did the men of Uruk suffer, but this great king, who was supposed to care for his people, even abused the women. Gilgamesh, king of this numberless people, he, the shepherd of ramparted Uruk, Gilgamesh would leave no girl to her mother. Gilgamesh would leave no young woman to her husband. Gilgamesh would take advantage of the girls of Uruk before they would marry a husband.
So the people cried out to the gods, complaining about their king's behavior. Their bitter clamor rose up to the sky. The warrior's daughter, the young man's chosen, Ishtar kept hearing their complaints.
Their bitter complaint reached the heaven of Anu. Anu devises a plan. What if a rival were to be created for the unruly king?
Let them summon Aruru, the great one. She created the human race. Let her create a match for Gilgamesh, mighty in strength.
Let them contend with each other that Uruk may have peace. At Anu's command. Aruru began her work.
Aruru wet her hands. She pinched off clay. She cast it down upon the step. She created valiant Enkidu in the step.
Who was this Enkidu? What was he like when he was created? We are not left to guess.
Shaggy with hair was his whole body. He was made lush with head hair, like a woman. The locks of his hair grew thick as a grain field. He knew neither people nor inhabited land.
He dressed as animals do. He ate grass with gazelles. With beasts he jostled at the water hold.
With wildlife he drank his fill of water. Enkidu is here described in ways that are similar to descriptions of uncivilized people groups. Those that live in the city are civilized and are loved by the gods.
Here Enkidu is portrayed as one who knows nothing of civilization and must be taught the ways of city life. Enkidu quickly began to make problems for the people in the city. A hunter, a trapping man, encountered him at the waterhole.
One day, a second, and a third, he encountered him at the waterhole. When he saw him, the hunter stood stock still with terror. As for Enkidu, he went home with his beasts.
The hunter was aghast, struck dumb. His feelings were in turmoil. His face drawn. There was sorrow in his heart. His face was like a traveler's from afar.
The hunter made ready to speak, saying to his father, My father, there is a certain fellow who comes to the waterhole. He is the mightiest in the land. Strength is his, like the force of heaven. So mighty is his strength.
He constantly ranges over the uplands, constantly eating grass with beasts, constantly making his way to the waterhole. I am too frightened to approach him. He has filled in the pits I dug.
He has torn out my traps I set. He has helped the beast, wildlife of the steppe slip from my hands. He will not let me work the steppe. What a situation to be in. This hunter who makes his livelihood from the animals in the steppe has encountered an animal-like man, incredibly strong, who has been aiding the animals in escaping the hunter.
The hunter's father advises him to go to the king. Gilgamesh. He will give you Shamhat, the harlot.
Take her with you. Let her prevail over him, instead of a mighty man. When the wild beasts draw near the waterhole, let her strip off her clothing, laying bare her charms. When he sees her, he will approach her. His beast that grew up with him on the steppe will deny him.
An interesting plan, to say the least. The prostitute Shamhat is to entice him. Enkidu and have sex with him, after which he will become foreign to the animals who will no longer have anything to do with him. Sounds like Adam and Eve with the animals.
As we might expect, when the hunter approaches Gilgamesh with the problem, he sends him to the step with Shamhat. The two of them stake out the watering hole. When the time comes, Enkidu and the animals come to drink. There he is, Shamhat. Open your embrace, open your loins.
Let him take your charms. Be not bashful, take his vitality. When he sees you, he will. approach you. Toss aside your clothing.
Let him lie upon you. Treat him a human to woman's work. His beast will deny him, though he grew up with them. As in his passion, he caresses you. Shamhat complies, and Enkidu approaches her.
Six days, seven nights was Enkidu aroused, flowing into Shamhat. After he had his fill of her delights, He set off towards the beasts. When they saw him, Enkidu, the gazelles, shied off. The wild beast of the steppe shunned his person. Enkidu has polluted his virginal body.
Not only could the animals sense the difference, Enkidu himself had undergone physical changes. His knees stood still while his beasts were going away. Enkidu was too slow. He could not run as before, but he gained strength.
reason, broadening his understanding. Indeed, he had moved one step closer toward life in the city and civilization. With nowhere else to go, Enkidu comes back to Shamhat, who tells him, You are handsome, Enkidu.
You are become like a god. Why roam the steppe with wild beasts? Come, let me lead you to ramparted Uruk, to the hallowed temple, a boat of Anu and Ishtar, the place of Gilgamesh.
who is perfect in strength, and so, like a wild bull, he lords it over the young men. Excited about the prospect of finding a friend, Enkidu replies, Come, Shamhat, escort me to the lustrous Hallowed. temple, a boat of Anu and Ishtar, the place of Gilgamesh, who is perfect in strength. And so, like a wild bull, he lords it over the young men.
I myself will challenge him. I will speak out boldly. I will raise a cry in Uruk. I am the mighty one. I am the one who will change destinies.
He who was born in the steppe is mighty. Strength is his. Shamhat attempts to nuance Enkidu's intent. and going to Uruk to meet Gilgamesh.
The gods favor Gilgamesh, attested by his strength and beauty. Enkidu should come to Uruk to enjoy the life that courses through the city, where young men are resplendent in holiday clothing, where every day is set for a celebration, where drums never stop beating, and the harlots too. They are fairest of form, rich in beauty, full of delights.
Even the great gods are kept from sleeping at night. The story shifts back to Uruk, where Gilgamesh has had a dream, and he is bringing it to his mother, the goddess Ninsun, to have her explain its meaning. Mother, such a dream I had last night. There were stars of heaven around me, as the force of heaven kept falling on me. falling toward me.
I tried to carry it, but it was too strong for me. I tried to move it, but I could not budge it."This thing that fell from heaven became the focus of all the people of Uruk. Everyone clamored to see it and Gilgamesh explains,"...I fell in love with it like a woman. I caressed it.
I carried it off and laid it down before you. Then you were making it my partner."Ninsan explains that the dream means there will come to you a strong one. A companion who rescues a friend, he will be mighty in the land. Strength will be his, like the force of heaven. So mighty will be his strength. You will fall in love with him like a woman. You will caress him. He will be mighty and rescue you, time and again. Thinking of King David and Jonathan. Following this explanation, he tells his mother of a second, similar dream, which is interpreted in much the same way. The king was overjoyed at the prospect of gaining a close friend. The scene shifts back to Shamhat and Enkidu. She clothes Enkidu and took him to the shepherd's hut where a sheepfold was. The shepherds crowded around him. They said to themselves, of their own accord, this fellow is like Gilgamesh in stature. Enkidu was served bread and beer, things that he had never consumed before. Enkidu did not eat the bread. He eyed it uncertainly, then stared. Enkidu did not know to eat bread, nor had he ever learned to drink beer. Shamhat encourages him, and Enkidu eats, becoming further civilized. Enkidu ate the bread until he was sated. He drank seven juglets of beer. His mood became relaxed. he was singing joyously. He felt lighthearted and his features glowed. He had his hair cut from his body and was anointed with oil, then put on proper clothing and became more human. With his great strength, he protected the shepherds and their flock, guarding them through the night and killing lions. One day, a traveler comes by and tells Shamha and Enkidu that he is going to the city of Uruk to celebrate a wedding. However, much to Enkidu's surprise, he is not allowed to go. surprise and dismay, there's a darker side to the ceremony. For Gilgamesh, king of broad-marted Uruk, the people's veils are open for his choosing. He mates with the lawful wife. He first, the groom after. By divine decree pronounced, from the cutting of his umbilical cord, she is his due. For this, Enkidu will not stand. He and Shamhat make their way to Uruk. When he entered the street of broad-marted Uruk, a multitude crowded around him. They said about him, He is equal to Gilgamesh in build, though shorter in stature. He is stronger of frame. With the entire city gathered around, Enkidu confronts Gilgamesh. As Gilgamesh went to sleep with the bride, Enkidu blocked the door to the wedding with his foot, not allowing Gilgamesh to enter an earth-shaking fight. They grappled with each other, crouching like bulls. They shattered the doorpost. The wall shook. They fought in the street, the public square. It was Gilgamesh who knelt for the win. His foot on the ground, his fury abated. He turned away. Gilgamesh had won, but it appears not by much. Enkidu then addresses Gilgamesh. As one unique did your mother bear you, the wild cowl of the ramparts. Ninsun exalted you above the most valorous of men. Enlil has granted you kingship over the people. From that point forward, the two were inseparable. They kissed each other and made friends. Enkidu and Gilgamesh go to Ninsun, Gilgamesh's mother, and she warns him that this friendship will ultimately result in difficulty. After lamenting such news, Gilgamesh formulates a plan that will gain them fame. There dwells in the forest a fierce monster, Humbaba. You and I shall kill him and wipe out something evil from the land. Let us surprise him in his dwelling. Given his experience in the forest, Enkidu warns Gilgamesh that Humbaba is quite the formidable opponent. Humbaba's cry is the roar of a deluge. His maul is fire. His breath is death. The dwelling of Humbaba is a hopeless quest, he explains. explains that Enlil himself had set Humbaba to guard the Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh responds that this journey is of utmost importance. People's days are numbered. Whatever they attempt is a puff of air. Here you are, even you, afraid of death? What good is your bravery's might? I will go before you. You can call out to me. Go on, be not afraid. If I fall, I'll have established my name. Gilgamesh, who joined battle with fierce Humbaba, they'll say, must establish eternal fame. Come, my friend, let's be off to the foundry. Let them cast axes such as we'll need. They armed themselves with a variety of deadly weapons and went before the assembly of the city of Urk. Gilgamesh addressed the elders of the city, telling them of their plans. Enkidu attempts to persuade the elders to turn Gilgamesh from this plan. He must not go to the Forest of Cedars. That journey is not to be undertaken. That being is not to be looked upon. The elders agree with Enkidu and attempt to persuade Gilgamesh against this course of action. Gilgamesh, however, remains determined to go. I will slay him, Baba, like a lion. I will lash together logs of cedar, cypress, and everygreen trees. I will gather the boughs upon it. I will cut off Humbaba's head and I will navigate downstream. Realizing that Gilgamesh is not to be deterred, the elders entrust Gilgamesh to Enkidu's care. Let Enkidu walk before you. He knows the way to the Forest of Cedars. He has seen battle, been exposed to combat. Let Enkidu protect his friend, safeguard his companion. Let him return to be a grave husband. We in our assembly entrust the king to you. On your return, entrust the king to us. Before setting off, the two warriors visit Ninsun in order to receive her blessing on the quest. In a lengthy prayer, Ninsun asks Shaman, the Sun God to watch over them. Armed and under the protection of the gods, the two make their way west to the cedar forest. Given their great size, strength, and stamina, the pair is able to cover a tremendous distance in just a short period of time. 20 double leagues they took a bite to eat. At 30 double leagues they made their camp. 50 double leagues they went in a single day. A journey of a month. and a half in three days. As they set up camp, Gilgamesh asks to be given a dream in order to be reassured that he will be successful in his venture. Enkidu builds Gilgamesh a small shelter in which to sleep and performs a ritual of spreading flour in a circle on the ground. As Gilgamesh sleeps, he dreams of a mountain falling on top of him. In the middle of the night, he awoke, got up and said to his friend, My friend, did you not call me? Why am I awake? Did you not touch me? Why am I disturbed? Did God not pass by? Why does my flesh tingle? My friend, I had a dream, and the dream I had was very disturbing. Enkidu reassures Gilgamesh that the dream was a good omen. My friend, the mountain you saw is Humbaba. We will catch Humbaba. We will kill him. We will throw down his corpse on the field of battle. Then at dawn, we will see good tidings from Shamash. The cycle repeats. They travel a great distance. Gilgamesh dreams and Enkidu interprets. Finally, the two reach their destination, the cedar forest. They stood there, marveling at the forest. They gazed at the height of the cedars. They gazed at the way into the forest. But all was not well with our hero. As the cedar cast its shadow, Gilgamesh was beset by fear. Stiffness seized his arms. Then numbness befell his legs. In spite of his friend's panic, Enkidu exclaims, Let's go into the forest! On with it! Let's raise our challenge! Perhaps to talk himself out of his own fear, Gilgamesh gives a rousing speech to Enkidu. Why, my friend? We are trembling like weaklings. We. Who crossed all the mountains? Signs will appear before us further along. We will see some light. My friend is a veteran of combat. One who has experienced battle is not afraid of death. You have spattered yourself with gore. You're not afraid of death. Get your blood up like an oracle. Work yourself into a trance. Your battle cry should boom like a drum. Get the stiffness out of your arms. Rive the numbness from your legs. Take hold of me, my friend. Your thoughts should focus on battle. We now get our first glimpse into the mind of the guardian of the cedar forest, Humbaba. Humbaba debated with himself, saying, No seeker of cedar has come. No seeker of cypress has come. Why are the birds perturbed? Why are my very own birds alarmed? Returning to our heroes, Enkidu now speaks confidently to Gilgamesh. My friend, one is one, but two are double. Though one be weak, two together are strong. If one cannot scale a slippery slope, two can do it together. A three-strand rope is stronger when doubled. Two cubs are stronger than a mighty lion. Preparing for attack, Yogamesh prays to his divine protector, the sun god Shamash. Forget not that day, oh Shamash. I put my trust in you. Stand by me now. Protect the- Gilgamesh, scion of Uruk, Shamash replies, hurry, confront him. Do not let him go off into the forest. Do not let him enter the thicket. He has not donned all his seven fearsome cloaks. One he has on, six he has left off. The following section is fragmentary, but when the text picks back up, we see Humbaba speaking directly to our heroes. Why have you made your way here? Come, Enkidu. small fry who does not know his father spawn of a turtle or tortoise you suck no mother's milk i used to see you when you were younger but would not go near you had i killed the likes of you would i have filled my belly why have you brought gilgamesh to me with evil intent and taken a stand there like some foreign foe i should slash the throat and neck of gilgamesh i should let flying insects screaming eagles and vultures feed on his flesh gilgamesh starts to waver in his resolve and inky duke pushes him to attack Gilgamesh advanced, heeding his friend's advice. He sprang like a lion, while Enkidu rushed forward like a bodyguard. Then they seized Humbaba in the forest. His cry filled the forest. After a fierce struggle, Gilgamesh overpowers Humbaba. The mighty guardian then pleads for his life to be spared. Oh Gilgamesh, a dead man cannot serve a master. A living slave is profitable for his master. Oh Gilgamesh. Spare my life! You will be master wherever I am! Enkidu warns Gilgamesh. Friend, do not listen to what Humbaba says! Do not heed his entreaties! To whom Humbaba responds, I might have lifted you up, dangled you from a twig at the entrance to my forest. I might have let flying insects, screaming eagles, and vultures feed on your flesh. Now then, Enkidu, mercy is up to you! Tell Gilgamesh to spare my life! Just as Humbaba... Humbaba did not kill Enkidu, Enkidu should spare Humbaba. Unfortunately, his pleas fall on deaf ears. Enkidu presses Gilgamesh, finish him off for the kill. Put him out of his existence. Establish your reputation for all time, Gilgamesh. who slew Humbaba. Having run out of options, the guardian of the forest appeals directly to Shamath, but it appears that no help is forthcoming. Humbaba turns and curses Enkidu for what he has done, and the lack of mercy shown to him. Gilgamesh then finally turns and kills Humbaba. Gilgamesh heeded his friend's words. He drew out the sword at his side. Gilgamesh smote him in the neck. He struck him, Humbaba the guardian, down to the ground. He slew the monster, guardian of the forest. Having slain the guardian of the cedar forest, the two set out to cut down large cedar trees. These actions, killing Humbaba and cutting down the cedar trees, would likely anger Enlil. Enkidu relays this to Gilgamesh. My friend, we have made a wasteland of the forest. How shall we answer for it to Enlil and Nippur, when he says, You slew the guardian as a deed of valor. But But what was this, your fury, that you decimated the forest? In hopes of placating Enlil, they plan to cut down the tallest cedar and bring it back to Nippur to build a huge door for Enlil's temple out of it. Let no stranger approach it. May the god love it. Let the Euphrates bring it to Nippur, Nippur the sanctuary of Enlil. May Enlil be delighted with you. May Enlil rejoice over it. May bring the cedars down the Euphrates. Upon their return, Gilgamesh cleans himself up, drawing the attention of the goddess Ishtar. The princess Ishtar coveted Gilgamesh's beauty. She said, Come, Gilgamesh, you shall be my bridegroom. Give me of your lusciousness. You shall be my husband, shall be your wife. She promises him great wealth and prosperity. Gilgamesh is unmoved. What will I get if I marry you? You are a brazier that goes out when it freezes. A flimsy door that keeps out neither wind nor draught, a palace that crushes a warrior, an elephant that knocks down its housing, tar that smears its bearer, water skin that soaks its bearer, weak stone that undermines a wall, battering ram that destroys the wall for an enemy, shoe that pinches its wearer. Yikes. Why would he insult Ishtar in such a vicious manner? Gilgamesh recounts her history as a lover. Which of your lovers lasted forever? Come, I call you to account for your lovers. For Dumuzi, your girlhood lover, you ordained year after year of weeping. Gogamesh goes through a list of those whom Ishtar fell in love, only to bring about a terrible outcome for each. He concludes, as for me, now that you've fallen in love with me, you will treat me like them? Ishtar, deeply offended and enraged, hurries up to heaven to speak to Anu, her father. Ishtar went sobbing before Anu, her father before Antum, her mother. Her tears flowed down. Father, Gilgamesh has said outrageous things about me. Gilgamesh has been spouting insults about me. Insults and abuse against me. She demands that her father give her the giant creature, the Bull of Heaven, in order to kill Gilgamesh. If you don't give me the Bull of Heaven, I'll strike down the Nether fastness, as well as where its inmates dwell. I'll turn the Nether regions upside down. I'll raise the dead to devour the living. The dead shall greatly outnumber the living! Anu eventually agrees. and Ishtar returns to wreak havoc on the city of Uruk. When it reached Uruk, it dried up groves, reed beds, and marshes. It went down to the river. It lowered the river by seven cupids. As the bull snort, a pit opened up. One hundred men of Uruk fell into it, one after another. In the midst of the chaos, Enkidu took action. Enkidu sprang out and seized the bull by its horns. The bull spewed its foam in his face. swished dung at him with the tuft of its tail. Having lost round one, Enkidu rallies Gilgamesh and makes a plan to take the bull down. Enkidu circled around behind the bull of heaven. He grabbed it by the tuft of its tail. He set his foot on its hock. Then Gilgamesh, like a strong, skillful slaughter, thrust his dagger between nape, horn, and kill point. They had defeated the bull of heaven at the sight. Ishtar sat on the walls of Urg and wailed, blaming Gilgamesh for his insults and for killing the bull. When Enkidu heard what Ishtar said, he tore off the bull's haunch and flung it at her. You too, if I could vanquish you, I'd treat you like this. I'd drape the guts over your arms. Not a good thing to say to a goddess. Both Enkidu and Gilgamesh celebrated their victory, but it was to be short-lived. Their actions had gone too far. Judgment was about to come from the gods. Because they had killed the bull of heaven and cut cedar trees down in the forest, one of the two must die. It is ultimately decided that it should be Enkidu, which is revealed to Enkidu in a dream. Enkidu laments, prays to Shamash, then curses the hunter and the prostitute Shamhat for their role in bringing him out of his life in the steppe. May the hunter not get enough to make him a living. Make his profit loss. Cut down his stake. May his income, his portion evaporate before you, Shamash. Any wildlife, wherever it enters his traps, may it go out as if it threw a window. When he had cursed the hunter to his heart's content, he resolved to curse the harlot Shamhat. Come, Shamhat, I will ordain you a destiny, a destiny that will never end, forever and ever. A long list of curses follows, to which Shamash replies, Oh, Enkidu, why curse Shamhat the harlot, who gave you bread to eat, fit for a god, who poured you beer, fit for a king, who dressed you in a noble garment, and gave you handsome Gilgamesh for a comrade? He comforts Enkidu with the knowledge that Gilgamesh will lament his death and bury him properly. When Enkidu heard the speech of the valiant Shamash, his raging heart was calmed. He reverses his curses upon Shamhat, pronouncing instead with blessings. Enkidu dreams that he is to be taken to the netherworld, and although Gilgamesh attempts to persuade him that it is not a bad omen, Enkidu indeed falls terminally ill. The day he had the dream, his strength ran out. Enkidu's illness grew worse. He called for Gilgamesh, roused him with his cry. My friend, my god has turned against me. Shortly thereafter, Enkidu dies. Gilgamesh falls into a terrible state of lamentation, calling for everyone to weep for him. All the while, I too shall be weeping for you. Hear me, O young men, listen to me. Hear me, O elders of Uruk, listen to me. I weep for my friend, Enkidu. I well as bitterly as a professional keener. What now is this sleep that has seized you? You have faded from me. You cannot hear me. In a moving section of the story, Enkidu does not reply. But as for him, he did not raise his head. He touched his heart, but it beat no more. Then he covered his friend's face, like a bride's. He hovered round him like an eagle, like a lioness robbed of her cubs. He paced to and fro back and forth, tearing out and letting fall in a heap the locks of his hair, ripping off and hurling away his fine clothes like something foul. He performs extensive funerary rites, calling for mourning throughout the land. And after all his lamenting, Gilgamesh comes to a harsh realization. Gilgamesh was weeping. bitterly for Enkidu, his friend, as he roamed the steppe. I shall die too. Shall I not then be like Enkidu? Oh, sorrow has entered my heart. In light of this epiphany, he makes a decision. I have grown afraid of death. So I roamed the steppe. Having come this far, I will go on swiftly towards Utnapishtim, son of Ubar-Tutu. He will travel to the survivor of the flood and find out how he was able to acquire eternal life. Gilgamesh approaches the mountains where Shamash, the sun god, comes out at sunrise. The entrance is guarded by fearsome creatures. The twin peaks are called Mashum. When he arrived at the first peak called Mashum, which daily watches over the rising of the sun, scorpion monsters guard its portal. Their fearsome glories are stupefying. The sight of them is death. Their ghastly radiance spreads over the mountain. They watch over the sun. at his rising and setting. When Gilgamesh approaches them, they converse with one another concerning him. The scorpion monster called to his wife, The one who has come to us, his body is flesh of the gods. The scorpion monster's wife answered him, Two-thirds of him is divine. One-third is human. The scorpion monster, the male one, called out, Who are you? Who have come this long way? How have you come here before me? How did you cross the seas? a perilous crossing. I would learn of your journey, the goal toward which you make your way. I would learn of its purpose, Gilgamesh explains. I seek the road to my forefather Utnapishtim, whom they call the Distant One, he who took his place among the gods and found eternal life. He will reveal to me the secret, the scorpion warns him. There was never, oh Gilgamesh, anyone like you. No one ever entered the interior of the mountain. Its passage is 12 double hours. Dense is the darkness. No light is there. How would Gilgamesh be able to make it through the pitch black mountain fast enough to beat the sun before it makes its pass across the sky and re-enters the tunnel at the opposite end? However, he ultimately allows Gilgamesh to enter the tunnel through the mountains. Gilgamesh ran. Hour after hour he ran, knowing that if he were not able to exit the tunnel before the sun entered from the other end. he would certainly be doomed. When he had gone 10 double hours, the time for the sun's entry was drawing near. When he had gone 11 double hours, just one double hour was left. When he had gone 12 double hours, he came out ahead of the sun. Having outrun the sun, Gilgamesh makes his way through a bejeweled grove, finally arriving at a tavern that is situated at the edge of the sea. In this tavern lived Siduri, the tavern keeper. Gilgamesh, strode toward her. He was clad in a skin. He was frightful. He had flesh of gods in his body. Sorrow was in his heart. His face was like a traveler's from afar. The tavern keeper eyed him from a distance. Speaking to herself, she said these words. She debated within herself. This, I am sure, is a slaughterer of wild bulls. Whence made he straight for my door? So fearful was his appearance. that Siduri barred her door and retreated to the roof. Gilgamesh sees her on the roof and calls out to her, Tavern keeper, when you saw me, why did you bar your door? Bar your door and go up to the roof terrace. I will strike down the door. I will shatter the door bolt. Gilgamesh converses with her, telling her who he is and the mighty deeds that he and Enkidu accomplished together. She replies, Why are your cheeks emaciated? Your face cast down. Your spirit wretched, your features wasted, sorrow in your heart, your face like a traveler's from afar, your features weathered by cold and sun. Why are you clad in a lion's skin, roaming the steppe? Gilgamesh laments that he has lost his friend, Enkidu, whom I so loved, who went with me through every hardship. The fate of mankind has overtaken him. Six days and seven nights I wept for him. I would not give him up for burial until a worm fell out of his nose. Enkidu, my friend whom I loved, is turned into clay. Shall I too not lie down like him and never give it up and never get up forever and ever? Siduri's words were to the point. Gilgamesh, wherefore do you wander? The eternal life you are seeking you shall not find. When the gods created mankind, they established death for mankind. and withheld eternal life for themselves. She does have some words of encouragement, however. As for you Gilgamesh, Let your stomach be full. Always be happy, night and day. Make every day a delight. Night and day, play and dance. Your clothes should be clean. Your head should be washed. You should bathe in water. Look proudly on the little one holding your hand. Let your mate always be blissful in your loins. This, then, is the work of mankind. He who is alive should be happy. Gilgamesh is undeterred. However, He demands to know the way to the flood survivor. Gilgamesh, there has never been a way across. No one from the dawn of time has ever crossed this sea. She explains how treacherous the crossing is. The water kills whoever touches it, the only one who crossed it. The boatman, Ur-Shinabi, has stone men who push the boat through the water, who are unaffected by the lethal water. Go, show yourself to him. If possible, cross with him. If not, turn back. Rashly, Gilgamesh finds Ur-Shanabi and his stone men and makes a tragic mistake. He crept forward, went down toward them. Like an arrow, he dropped among them. His battle cry resounded in the forest. Ur-Shanabi took up arms to defend himself, but Gilgamesh was too powerful for him. The boatman questions the attacker. Why are your cheeks emaciated? Your face cast down? Your spirit wretched? Your features wasted? Sorrow in your heart? Your face like a traveler's from afar, your features weathered by cold and sun. Why are you clad in a lion's skin, roaming the steppe? Gilgamesh laments Enkidu's death and his current fear of death. Six days and seven nights wept for him. Who would not give him up for burial until a worm fell out of his nose? I was frightened. I have grown afraid of dying, so I roamed the steppe. Shall I too not lie down like him and- never get up forever and ever? Gilgamesh then implores Ur-Shanabi to tell him the way to Utnapishtim, the survivor of the worldwide flood, who gained eternal life. Ur-Shanabi said to him, to Gilgamesh, your own hands have foiled you. Gilgamesh, you have smashed the stone charms. You have thrown them into a channel. The stone charms are smashed, and the cedar has not been picked. Oh, the irony. The stone men who were able to traverse the waters of death unaffected had been smashed to bits by Gilgamesh's own hands. They were destroyed before they were able to cut long cedar poles that could be used as punting poles to make it through the waters. Ur-Shanabi offers a solution. Gilgamesh, raise the axe in your hand. Go down into the forest. Cut me five times sixty poles, each five times twelve cupids long. Dress them. Set on knobs, bring them to me and load them on the boat. The king is able to go cut long punting poles in order to move the boat through the deadly waters without touching them. After he creates the poles, they board the boat and Gilgamesh. One pole at a time pushes the boat forward as far as the pole will allow until he simply drops it into the water. So as not to touch any of the water by pulling the punting pole. back up. However, they eventually ran out of poles, and Gilgamesh stripped down. Using his massive body, held his clothing up, creating a type of cell out of his body and clothing. Ultimately, however, Gilgamesh was able to traverse the waters of death. As Ur-Shanabi and Gilgamesh approached Ut-Napishtim, the flood survivors puzzled concerning who was approaching. Why have the stone charms belonging to the boat been smashed and not one its master embarked thereon. He who comes here is no man of mine, but at his right my man is standing. I can see that he is no man of mine. I can see that he is no god. I can see that two thirds of him is divine. One third is human. When they arrive, Gilgamesh explains to Utnapishtim why he roams the steppe and is seeking eternal life. I said to myself, I will go to Utnapishtim, the distant one of whom they tell. But Utnapishtim sees his actions as foolish. He has been blessed greatly by the gods. Why does he roam around, wearing himself out to no end? You strive ceaselessly. What do you gain? When you wear out your strength in ceaseless striving, when you torture your limbs with pain, you hasten the end of your days. Mankind whose descendants are snapped off like reeds in a cane break. The handsome young man, the lovely young woman. Death will robe them all too soon. No one sees death. No one sees the face of death. No one hears the voice of death. But cruel death cuts off mankind. Gilgamesh responds that he and Utnapishtim are not so different. How did he gain eternal life? As I look upon you, Utnapishtim, your limbs are not different. You are just as I am. Indeed, you are not different at all. You are just as I am. You then, how did you join the ranks of the gods and find eternal life? It is here that Utnapishtim reveals that his immortality came as a result of the worldwide flood that he was chosen to survive. I will reveal to you, O Gilgamesh, a secret matter and a mystery of the gods I will tell you. The city Shuruppak, a city yourself have knowledge of, which once was set on the bank of the Euphrates, that same city was ancient and gods once were within it. The great gods resolved to send the Deluge. All of the gods swore an oath that they would not tell the humans about their decision to destroy all humanity. However, the god Ea, who determined to save some humans, came up with a plan that would allow him to keep his oath to the gods, but still save a handful of humans. Their leader Ea was sworn with them. He repeated their plans to the Reed Fence. Wall! Listen, oh reed fence! Pay attention, oh wall! Brilliant. Ea was forbidden to tell any human, but he was not restricted from telling a reed fence about the destructive plans of the gods. If by chance, a human was within earshot, that was not Ea's fault. Ea speaks the following words to the reed fence. Oh man of Sharupak! Son of Ubar-Tutu, wreck house, build boat, forsake possessions and seek life, belongings reject and life save, take aboard the boat seed of all living thing. Utnapishtim asks what he should tell the people. Ea responds, then you shall speak to them thus, I am sure that Inlil has come to dislike me, I shall not dwell in your city. I shall not even set my food on the dry land of Enlil. I shall descend to the watery depths and dwell with my lord Ea. Upon you he shall shower down in abundance. A windfall of birds, a surprise of fishes. He shall pour upon you a harvest of riches. In the morning, cakes and spades. In the evening, grains and rains. The people of the city were thus tricked into helping Utnapishtim build the boat. and he prepares a great feast for them. Finally the time came for him to board the boat. Whatever I had loaded up upon her, what silver I had loaded upon her, what gold I had loaded upon her, I sent up on board all my family and kin, beasts of the steppe, wild animals of the steppe, all types of skilled craftsmen I sent up on board. Then came the storm. At the first glimmer of dawn, A black cloud rose over the horizon. Inside it, Adad was thundering, while the destroying gods Shulut and Hanesh went in front. Adad's awesome power passed over the heavens. Whatever was bright was turned into gloom. He charged over the land like an ox. He smashed it like a clay pot. For one day the storm wind blew. Swiftly it blew. The flood came forth. The onslaught passed over the people like a battle. No one could see the one next to him. People could not recognize each other in the downpour. The intensity of the storm was great enough even to terrify the gods themselves. The gods became frightened of the deluge. They shrank back, went up to Anu's highest heaven. The gods cowered like dogs slinking in the open. Bilat-Ili lamented, How could I have spoken up for an evil deed in the assembly of the gods and spoken up for an attack to destroy my people? It is I who bring them into the world. They are my people. Now, like so many fish, they choke up the sea. The storm continued for six days and seven nights, then came to an end on the seventh day. Surveying what had happened, Utnapishtim said, I looked at the weather. Illness reigned, and the whole human race had turned into clay. He weeps for the death and destruction, then looks around and sees land coming into view. The boat had come to rest on Mount Nimush. Mount Nimush held the boat fast, not letting it move. For six days he waited, anchored, to Mount Nimush, then investigated how much the water had receded. When the seventh day arrived, I brought out a dove and set it free. The dove soared off, in search of food. No landing place appeared for it, so it came back. I brought out a swallow and set it free. The swallow swore off in search of food. No landing place appeared to it, so it came back. I brought out a raven and set it free. The raven swore off and saw the ebbing of the waters. It ate, scratched, and bobbed its head, so it did not come back. It was time to disembark. Utnapishtim came off the ark and made offerings to the gods. The gods smelt the savor. The gods smelled the sweet savor. The gods crowded around the sacrificer like flies. Bele Ili speaks to the other gods, holding out a necklace as a symbol. Oh gods, these shall be my lapis necklace, lest I forget. I shall be mindful of these days and not forget, not ever. The gods should come to the incense offering, but Enlil should not come to the incense offering, because he brought the flood without thinking and marked my people. For destruction, Enlil arrives and is enraged. From where has a living creature escaped? No man was to survive destruction! Quickly comes a clear that Ea is responsible. He pulls no punches with Enlil. You, oh valiant one, the wisest of the gods. How could you have brought on the flood without thinking? Punish the wrongdoer for his wrongdoing. Punish the transgressor for his transgression. He charges Enlil. with wrongdoing himself, but leaves it to Enlil to decide what to do with Utnapishtim. Then Enlil came up into the boat, leading me by my hands. He brought me out. He brought out my wife, had her kneel beside me. He touched our brows, stood between us to bless us. Hitherto Utnapishtim has been a human being. Now Utnapishtim and his wife shall become like us gods. Utnapishtim shall dwell for distant a mouth. of the rivers. From that day forward, the survivor of the flood had been set far reaches of the world, there to live forever. But this brings Utnapishtim back to Gilgamesh. This was how he gained eternal life. But what about Gilgamesh? Now then, who will convene the gods for your sake? You may find the eternal life you seek. The answer, no one. To show that impossible position Gilgamesh was in, in his attempt to save the world, he must have done it. to defeat death. He issues the king a challenge. Can he even defeat sleep? Come now, try not to sleep for six days and seven nights. If he wouldn't be able to even defeat sleep, how much less death itself? As Gilgamesh sat there on his haunches, sleep was swirling over him like a mist. Utnapishtim said to her, to his wife, behold, this fellow who wanted eternal life, sleep swirls over him like a mist. His wife implores Utnapishtim to wake him and send him on his way. But Utnapishtim fears that Gilgamesh will not believe that he has actually fallen asleep. Since the human race is duplicitous, he'll endeavor to dupe you. Come now, bake his daily loaves. Put them one after another by his head. Then mark the wall for each day he has slept. The plan was to bake a loaf of bread each day that Gilgamesh slept as a sort of visual timekeeping device. When he awoke and saw all the moldy and stale loaves of bread, he would be able to see that he had slept for quite some time. When Gilgamesh awakes, as Utnapishtim predicted, he tried to say he hadn't slept for more than a moment. Scarcely had sleep stolen over me, when straight away you touched me and roused me. Pointing to the seven loaves of bread, however, Utnapishtim was able to demonstrate how long he had been asleep. Gilgamesh laments, Oh, should I carry on? Utnapishtim! wherever should I go? Now that the bereaver has taken hold of my flesh, death lurks in my bed chamber, and wherever I turn, there is death. Gilgamesh then cleans himself up, and the king prepares to return to Uruk. Utnapishtim's wife, however, asks her husband to tell the king about the secret plant of life. I will reveal to you, O Gilgamesh, a secret matter and a mystery of the gods I will tell you. There is a certain plant. It's shaped like a thorn bush. Its thorns are like the wild rose and will prick your hand. If you can secure this plant, when you eat it, you will return to how you were in your youth. Thrilled at such news, Gilgamesh ties stones to his feet and plunges into the waters in search of the plant. Success! He finds the plant. Urshinabi. This plant is a cure for heartache, whereby a man can regain his vitality. I will take it to Ramparted Urk. I will have an old man eat some and so test the plant. He then embarks on the long journey home Eager to test out the plant on an aging old man from his city, on their way back, Gilgamesh stops by a pool of water to take a bath. He went down into it to bathe in the water. A snake caught the scent of the plant. Stealthily, it came up and carried the plant away. On its way back, it shed its skin. No! Gilgamesh had immortality in his hand, and it was taken away by a snake? Thereupon Gilgamesh sat down weeping, his tears streaming down his face. He said to Ur-Shinobi, the boatman, For whom, Ur-Shinobi, have my arms been toiling? For whom has my heart's blood been poured out? For myself, I have obtained no benefit. I have done a good deed for a reptile. At the very end of the epic, Gilgamesh makes it back to Uruk. Quite intentionally, the writer ends the story in the same way that he began it. Gilgamesh said to him, to Urshanabi the boatman, Go up, Urshanabi, pace out the walls of Uruk, study the foundation terrace, and examine the brickwork. Is not its masonry of kiln-fired brick, and did not seven masters lay its foundations? One square mile of city, one square mile of gardens, one square mile of clay pits, a half square mile of Ishtar's dwelling, three and a half square miles is the measure of Uruk. Although this may seem like an odd place to end the story, by closing the epic so similarly to how it began, it employed a literary device that brings the reader back to the beginning of the story to begin it again. The epic, in some ways, continues on indefinitely. And this was the message of the story itself. Gilgamesh did indeed discover how to gain a type of immortality by having his story told again and again. He finally realized that, Although he could not live forever in his mortal body, his deeds, his achievements, and the memory of his works would bring about a type of eternal life for the King of Urg, Gilgamesh and the Bible. Now that you know the gist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, we should discuss a bit of history and some interesting elements which overlap with the Bible. Shortly after beginning his excavation at Nimrud, Austin Henry Laird uncovered the first of eight Assyrian palaces dating from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE at Nimrud and Nineveh. He and his assistant marveled at rooms adorned with stone barulaph depicting demons, gods, battles, and royal ceremonies as well as doorways guarded by giant winged bulls and lions. They also discovered tens of thousands of cuneiform inscribed clay tablets. The ancient libraries of Assyrian kings like Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal. Though Layard's methods were more akin to treasure hunting than modern archaeology, his efforts unveiled a major Mesopotamian civilization under challenging conditions. Many of Layard's most dramatic finds were sent to the British Museum, captivating Victorian audiences with their connections to biblical history. By the early 1850s, advancements in deciphering Assyrian-Babylonian cuneiform linked the artifacts to historical figures and events, including Jehu, the 9th century BCE king of Israel, and Sennacherib's siege of Lachish. Layard's book, Nineveh and its Remains, was held as a monumental achievement and celebrated widely. The name Akkadian is derived from the city-state of Akkad near present-day Baghdad, founded in the middle of the 3rd millennium BCE and capital of one of the first great empires in human history. By 2000 BCE, Akkadian had supplanted Sumerian as the major spoken language of Mesopotamia, and around this time it split into two dialects, Babylonian, which was spoken in southern Mesopotamia, and Assyrian, which was spoken in the north. In his 1876 work, the Chaldean account of Genesis, George Smith describes a pivotal moment during his research. Upon examining the third column of a text, he identifies a speech made by the Deluge hero, which he initially attributed to a figure named Idzubar, later understood to be Gilgamesh. Although his initial interpretation of the cuneiform was incorrect, recalling a related legend about Idzubar, Smith compares and confirms, its connection to the same narrative series, this insight propels him into an exhaustive search among thousands of fragmented tablets, despite the fragments being and often indecipherable. His determination pays off as he manages to uncover additional pieces of the Adzubar legends, a task both arduous and fruitful. These discoveries shocked the world with a much earlier version of the flood myth than that of Noah. Much more can be said of its discovery and subsequent discoveries, but let's go over some parallels to the Bible. The contexts are different, but the overlap is enough. to seriously consider. We find stories with immortality hanging over the mortal's head like a mistletoe, a garden where the gods dwell near or on mountains, and even create wild man from a pinch of clay who dwells with animals until a woman comes along and tames his wild nature making him civil. Stories where tests of morality take central place from taking advantage of women and two men fall in love with one another becoming best friends. We have stories with divine judgment on the civilized cities and snakes taking the symbol of rebirth or eternal life away from the man. These stories share so many elements that it's really hard not to think the Bible is giving a nod to the earlier epic of Gilgamesh. The most famous parallel between the epic of Gilgamesh and the Bible is the flood narrative. Key elements of the flood narratives. Divine Communication In both stories, a divine figure communicates the imminent destruction to a chosen individual. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the god Ea, or Enki, warns Utnapishtim about the god's decision to send a flood to destroy humanity. In the Bible, God warns Noah of his plan to flood the earth due to the wickedness of humans. Both Utnapishtim and Noah are instructed to build a large boat. Utnapishtim builds a cube-shaped boat. arc according to the gods measurements while Noah builds an arc of specific dimensions as instructed by God both steal their arcs with pitch these arcs are meant to preserve life both heroes are told to bring aboard their family and various animals this element highlights the theme of preservation and continuity of life post catastrophe the flood itself is a cataclysmic event in both stories representing divine retribution, but also a cleansing and a new beginning. It lasts for several days and covers the earth, wiping out all life except for those on the Ark. In both accounts, the hero's vessel lands upon a mountain. After the waters begin to recede, both heroes release birds to find out whether the water has retreated enough to reveal the land. The sequence of birds and their actions Articulately sending of a dove which eventually returns with a sign of new life, an olive branch in the Bible, is remarkably similar. Post-flood, both narratives feature a form of covenant. Utnapishtim is granted immortality by the gods as a reward for his obedience and survival. In Genesis, God makes a covenant with Noah promising never to destroy the earth with a flood again and gives a rainbow as a sign of this covenant. In both accounts, the gods smell the sweet aroma of the burnt offering, and it softens their wrath. When the great gods decide to send the flood, two lines that occur later in Tablet 11 imply that the Inlil's motivation was to punish men's evil doing. Do not allow all men to die because of the sins of some, like punish the guilty but not the innocent. In this, it resembles the Noah story, both in the J version, And in the P version. Now when the Lord saw how great the evil of humans was. and how every impulse in their hearts was nothing but evil all the time. He was sorry that he had made humans on the earth, and he was pained in his heart. And he said, I will destroy all humankind from the earth. I am sorry I ever made them. Genesis 6, 5, 7. And the earth was exceedingly corrupt and filled with violence. And when God saw how corrupt the earth was and how corrupt humankind had become on the earth, God said to Noah, I'm going to put an end to humankind, for the earth is filled with violence because of them. I'm going to blot them out from the earth. Genesis 6, 11, or 13. The Atrahasis, however, in its sublimely ridiculous way, provides the following motivation. The earth was too full, the people too numerous. The land was bellowing like a wild bull. Enlil said to the other great gods, The noise of humans has become too loud. Their constant uproar is keeping me awake. Slippery Snakes Gilgamesh and the Plant of Rejuvenation In the Epic of Gilgamesh, after a long and perilous quest, Gilgamesh obtains a plant that has the power to restore youth. The plant represents a tangible form of immortality, a chance for Gilgamesh to bring back something of eternal value to his people. However, while Gilgamesh bathes, a snake stills the plant, consumes it, and immediately sheds its skin. symbolizing its own renewal and rebirth. This incident highlights the elusive nature of immortality for humans and the natural cycle of renewal that some creatures like the snake possess. The snake's role here is almost trickster-like, though it acts more as a force of nature that inadvertently teaches Gilgamesh a lesson about the human condition and the inevitability of aging and death. Adam, Eve, and the serpent. In the Genesis narrative, The serpent is depicted as a cunning creature that tempts Eve to eat from the forbidden tree of knowledge of good and evil, contrary to God's direct command. The serpent's role is more explicitly malevolent compared to its neutral natural role in Gilgamesh. It represents disobedience and the introduction of sin into the world. By convincing Eve to eat the fruit, the serpent sets into motion the events that lead to the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden and the divine pronouncement of the Lord God. that humans will not have access to the Tree of Life, thus denying them immortality. In this story, the serpent is a catalyst for knowledge and the complex moral and ethical lives that Adam and Eve will now lead, which includes an awareness of mortality. I'm reminded of the Adapa myth where he goes to meet Anu and engages with the serpent dragon deity Ningishzida. Check out some of the images of this deity, Ningishzida. Divine Gardens Both texts reference lush divine gardens. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, there is a mention of gardens of the gods filled with jewels and plants. The Bible describes the Garden of Eden, a perfect place created by God with every kind of beautiful and fruitful tree. You were in the garden, the garden of God. Every precious stone was your covering, the ruby, the topaz, and the diamond, the beryl. the onyx and the jasper, the lapis lazuli, the turquoise and the emerald, and the gold. The workmanship of your settings and sockets was in you. On the day that you were created, they were prepared. Divine Retribution and Catastrophes Both texts contain themes of divine retribution leading to catastrophic events. For instance, the flood narrative in both traditions is a divine response to human wickedness or loudness. Additionally, in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the city of Urk faces the wrath of the gods through various events similar to the destruction of cities like Sodom and Gomorrah in the Bible due to their inhabitants'immorality, Enkidu and the animals. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Enkidu is initially described as a wild man created by the gods from clay to be a counterpart for Gilgamesh. He lives among the animals in the wilderness. Drinking at the waterholes with the gazelles and freeing animals from traps set by hunters. Enkidu is completely integrated with the animal world until his human qualities are awakened by a woman. Adam and the Animals In the Bible, Adam is the first man created by God from the dust of the ground. Before the creation of Eve, Adam is placed in the Garden of Eden tasked with naming all the animals. This establishes his dominion over them but also underscores his initial companionship with them, indicating a harmonious existence within the animal kingdom. Once Eve comes on the scene, Adam doesn't appear to be a companion of the animals anymore. For both characters, the introduction of a woman marked a pivotal turning point. Enkidu's transition from his wild state begins when he encounters Shamhat. a temple prostitute sent by the gods. After spending time with Shamhat, Enkidu becomes aware of his own humanity. This interaction leads him to leave the wilderness for human civilization, fundamentally changing his life and destiny. Similarly, Adam's solitary existence changes when God creates Eve from one of his ribs. Eve is introduced as a companion for Adam, marking the beginning of his human society, so to speak. Her creation is pivotal for the narrative of human development and moral challenges, much like Shamhat's role in awakening Enkidu's humanity and leading him to a new phase of life. Now, Enkidu, you know what it is to be with a woman, to unite with her. You are beautiful, you are like a god. Literally, you are handsome. Enkidu, you are like a god. The context seems to indicate understanding rather than beauty. One can't help comparing the words of the serpent in the Garden of Eden. As soon as you eat from it, your eyes will be opened, and you will be like gods, knowing good and evil. Genesis 3, verse 5. Gilgamesh loves Enkidu, and David loves Jonathan. The relationship dynamics between Gilgamesh and Enkidu in the Epic of Gilgamesh, and David and Jonathan in the Hebrew Bible have... often been explored by scholars for their deep emotional bonds, which some interpret as having homoerotic undertones. Both pairs share intense and intimate relationships that are central to their respective stories, reflecting profound connections beyond simple friendship. In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu is one of the narrative's central elements. Enkidu is initially created by the gods as a rival to Gilgamesh, but upon meeting, they become close companions. Their friendship is depicted as deeply intimate. and transformative, particularly for Gilgamesh, who mourns Enkidu's death with profound grief that leads him on a quest for immortality. Their bond is described in terms that suggest a deep emotional and possibly physical intimacy. They embrace and kiss after their initial conflict. Gilgamesh grieves for Enkidu like a spouse, using language that is typically reserved for the loss of a loved one in a conjugal sense. Gilgamesh's lament for Enkidu is filled with an intensity that echoes romantic or familial love. In the Hebrew Bible, the relationship between David and Jonathan is similarly characterized by deep emotional ties. Jonathan, the son of King Saul, forms an immediate bond with David, and their friendship becomes a defining part of both of their lives. The biblical text contains several passages that highlight the depth of their connection. Jonathan and David make a covenant because Jonathan loves him as his own soul, or Samuel 18, 1-3. Jonathan strips himself of his robe and armor to give to David, symbolizing his loyalty and perhaps a deeper emotional bond. Upon learning of Jonathan's death, David laments with a profound grief, describing Jonathan's love as wonderful, surpassing the love of women, 2 Samuel 1. 26. Jonathan and David kissed each other in a context where Jonathan's father Saul was trying to kill David. Death is prevalent theme in this as well as the Enkidu relationship with Gilgamesh. 1 Samuel 20 verse 41. There are many subtle examples of comparisons with the Bible, but we will just give one example. Ecclesiastes 9 7-10. Go, eat your food with gladness, and drink your wine with a joyful heart. For God has already approved what you do. Always be clothed in white. Always anoint your head with oil. Enjoy life with your wife, whom you love, all the days of this meaningless life that God has given you under the sun. All your meaningless days. For this is your lot in life, and in your toilsome labor under the sun. Whatever your hand finds to do, do it with all your might. For in the realm of the dead, where you are going, there is neither working nor planning, nor knowledge nor wisdom. Epic, Tablet 10, lines 82-92. As for you, Gilgamesh, let your stomach be full. Always be happy, night and day. Make every day a delight. Night and day, play and dance. Your clothes should be clean. Your head should be washed. You should bathe in water. Look proudly on the little one holding your hand. Let your mate always be blissful in your loins. This, then, is the work of mankind. He who is alive should be happy. I personally don't find it fair that we need to use the Bible in order to make the Epic of Gilgamesh popular or interesting to so many online. After reading it for myself, I can see exactly why the story would have influenced the biblical stories. It's a no-brainer. My hope is that you go read it for yourself and try to understand the depth it has to offer us today. I hope more people will begin to cherish stories like this as much as others have cherished the Bible. There are so many rich narratives that have so much to offer us, and this epic is at the top of the list.