Goals and Motivation in Psychology

Introduction

• Goals represent mental images of desired outcomes, varying from clearly defined to abstract.
• Goals satisfy either innate needs (e.g., social connection) or are learned (e.g., earning money).
• Motivation is the driving force behind pursuing goals.

Historical Context

• Early research included Norman Triplett's work on social facilitation and Max Ringelmann's on social loafing.
• Kurt Lewin's Field Theory emphasized the interaction of individual and environment on motivation.
• Bluma Zeigarnik discovered the Zeigarnik effect, where incomplete tasks remain in the mind.

Modern Goal Research

• Focuses on types of goals, self-regulation, and social cognition.
• Goals are structured hierarchically with subgoals and superordinate goals.
• Parallel goals can have inhibitory or facilitatory connections.

Principles in Goal Systems

1. Maximizing Goal Attainment: Preference for means that achieve multiple goals.
2. Dilution Principle: Association strength decreases with more goals served.

Goal System Configurations

• Equifinality: Multiple means serve one goal, providing backup options.
• Multifinality: Means achieve multiple goals, though sometimes underestimated.
• Unifinality: Means serve only one goal, strengthening association.
• Counterfinality: Means achieving one goal while undermining another.

Processes of Goal Pursuit

• Goal Setting: Involves deliberation and consideration of alternatives.
• Goal Striving: Implementation focuses on action and minimizing distractions.
• Individuals vary as "assessors" (evaluation-focused) or "locomotors" (action-focused).

Types of Goals

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Goals

• Intrinsic: Pursued for the enjoyment; often involves intrinsic motivation and psychological flow.
• Extrinsic: Pursued as a means to an end; often less intrinsically motivating.

Approach vs. Avoidance Goals

• Approach: Aim to achieve positive outcomes.
• Avoidance: Aim to avoid negative outcomes, often less intrinsically motivating.

Want-to vs. Have-to Goals

• Promotion Focus: Pursuit of ideals and aspirations.
• Prevention Focus: Pursuit of duties and obligations.

Abstract vs. Concrete Goals

• Abstract: Related to the "why" of an action, offering more desirability.
• Concrete: Related to the "how," providing clarity for implementation.

Motivational Influences

• Numerical Targets: Specific, measurable targets enhance motivation but can lead to unrealistic goals.
• Incentives: Can motivate but may also shift focus from intrinsic motivation.

Sustaining Motivation

Course of Motivation

• Motivation changes over time; can increase with progress (goal gradient effect), or decrease due to resource depletion.
• Commitment vs. Progress: Consistent commitment boosts motivation, while perceived progress can lead to relaxation.

Feedback and Learning

• Positive feedback is emotionally rewarding, while negative feedback can be challenging but essential for learning.
• Techniques like counterfactual thinking and growth mindset can help in learning from negative feedback.

Managing Multiple Goals

• Compromising vs. Prioritizing: Balancing multiple goals versus focusing on one.
• Self-Control and Patience: Involves managing temptations and delaying gratification for long-term goals.

Social Context

Shared Goals

• Social loafing and free riding are challenges in group settings.
• Efficient division of labor and unique skill contributions are beneficial but can limit flexibility.

Individual Goals in the Presence of Others

• Presence of observers can facilitate or hinder performance.
• Conformity, social norms, and role models significantly influence goal pursuit.

Conclusion

• Goals are influenced by both conscious and subconscious processes.
• Lifespan changes affect goal setting and pursuit, with aging populations focusing more on maintenance and loss avoidance.