AP Biology Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Chemistry of Life

Elements

• Elements are substances that can't be broken down into simpler substances.
• Key elements in biology: Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen.
• Trace elements are needed in small quantities (e.g., Iron, Iodine, Copper).

Subatomic Particles

• Atoms consist of protons (+), neutrons (no charge), and electrons (-).
• Isotopes have the same number of protons but different neutrons.

Compounds

• Made of two or more elements.
• Ionic bonds (electron transfer) and covalent bonds (electron sharing).

Water Properties

• Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high heat capacity, expansion on freezing.
• Involves hydrogen bonding.

Acids and Bases

• Acidity based on hydrogen ion concentration.
• pH scale: 1-14, 7 is neutral.

Organic Molecules

• Carbon-based molecules are organic.
• Four main types: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose), disaccharides, polysaccharides.
• Glycogen, starch (storage); cellulose, chitin (structural).

Proteins

• Made of amino acids.
• Levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

Lipids

• Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA, made of nucleotides.

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Cell Types

• Prokaryotic: Simpler, no nucleus, includes bacteria.
• Eukaryotic: Complex, nucleus, includes plants, animals, fungi.

Organelles

• Nucleus, ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton.

Transport Across Membranes

• Passive (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) and active transport (requiring energy).
• Endocytosis and exocytosis.

Unit 3: Cellular Energetics

Bioenergetics

• Energy transfer governed by the laws of thermodynamics.

Enzymes

• Biological catalysts; lower activation energy.
• Specific to substrates, influenced by environmental factors.

Photosynthesis

• Converts light energy to chemical energy.
• Occurs in chloroplasts, involves light and dark reactions.

Cellular Respiration

• Breakdown of glucose to produce ATP.
• Includes glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Unit 4: Cell Communication and Cell Cycle

Cell Communication

• Involves signal transduction pathways.
• Types: short-range and long-range signaling.

Cell Cycle

• Interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) and mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).

Unit 5: Hereditary

Mendelian Genetics

• Concepts of dominant/recessive traits, Punnett squares, laws of inheritance.

Non-Mendelian Genetics

• Linked genes, sex-linked traits, polygenic inheritance.

Meiosis

• Produces gametes, involves genetic variation through crossing over.

Unit 6: Gene Expression and Regulation

DNA Structure and Replication

• Double helix with base pairing.
• Replication involves enzymes like helicase and DNA polymerase.

Central Dogma

• DNA to RNA to protein.
• Transcription and translation processes.

Gene Regulation

• Operons in prokaryotes, transcription factors, and epigenetic changes.

Unit 7: Natural Selection

Evolution

• Natural selection based on variation and survival.
• Evidence from fossils, comparative anatomy, molecular biology.

Speciation

• Divergent and convergent evolution, reproductive isolation.

Unit 8: Ecology

Ecosystems

• Interactions between organisms and their environment.
• Food chains, energy flow, and ecological pyramids.

Human Impact

• Issues like pollution, deforestation, and climate change affecting biodiversity and ecosystems.