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Comprehensive AP Biology Study Guide

Apr 28, 2025

AP Biology Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Chemistry of Life

Elements

  • Elements are substances that can't be broken down into simpler substances.
  • Key elements in biology: Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen.
  • Trace elements are needed in small quantities (e.g., Iron, Iodine, Copper).

Subatomic Particles

  • Atoms consist of protons (+), neutrons (no charge), and electrons (-).
  • Isotopes have the same number of protons but different neutrons.

Compounds

  • Made of two or more elements.
  • Ionic bonds (electron transfer) and covalent bonds (electron sharing).

Water Properties

  • Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high heat capacity, expansion on freezing.
  • Involves hydrogen bonding.

Acids and Bases

  • Acidity based on hydrogen ion concentration.
  • pH scale: 1-14, 7 is neutral.

Organic Molecules

  • Carbon-based molecules are organic.
  • Four main types: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

  • Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose), disaccharides, polysaccharides.
  • Glycogen, starch (storage); cellulose, chitin (structural).

Proteins

  • Made of amino acids.
  • Levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

Lipids

  • Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.

Nucleic Acids

  • DNA and RNA, made of nucleotides.

Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function

Cell Types

  • Prokaryotic: Simpler, no nucleus, includes bacteria.
  • Eukaryotic: Complex, nucleus, includes plants, animals, fungi.

Organelles

  • Nucleus, ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton.

Transport Across Membranes

  • Passive (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) and active transport (requiring energy).
  • Endocytosis and exocytosis.

Unit 3: Cellular Energetics

Bioenergetics

  • Energy transfer governed by the laws of thermodynamics.

Enzymes

  • Biological catalysts; lower activation energy.
  • Specific to substrates, influenced by environmental factors.

Photosynthesis

  • Converts light energy to chemical energy.
  • Occurs in chloroplasts, involves light and dark reactions.

Cellular Respiration

  • Breakdown of glucose to produce ATP.
  • Includes glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Unit 4: Cell Communication and Cell Cycle

Cell Communication

  • Involves signal transduction pathways.
  • Types: short-range and long-range signaling.

Cell Cycle

  • Interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) and mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).

Unit 5: Hereditary

Mendelian Genetics

  • Concepts of dominant/recessive traits, Punnett squares, laws of inheritance.

Non-Mendelian Genetics

  • Linked genes, sex-linked traits, polygenic inheritance.

Meiosis

  • Produces gametes, involves genetic variation through crossing over.

Unit 6: Gene Expression and Regulation

DNA Structure and Replication

  • Double helix with base pairing.
  • Replication involves enzymes like helicase and DNA polymerase.

Central Dogma

  • DNA to RNA to protein.
  • Transcription and translation processes.

Gene Regulation

  • Operons in prokaryotes, transcription factors, and epigenetic changes.

Unit 7: Natural Selection

Evolution

  • Natural selection based on variation and survival.
  • Evidence from fossils, comparative anatomy, molecular biology.

Speciation

  • Divergent and convergent evolution, reproductive isolation.

Unit 8: Ecology

Ecosystems

  • Interactions between organisms and their environment.
  • Food chains, energy flow, and ecological pyramids.

Human Impact

  • Issues like pollution, deforestation, and climate change affecting biodiversity and ecosystems.