ACTIVE TRANSPORT
What is Active Transport?
Substances Undergoing Active transport against the concentration gradient) using energy from ATP.
It is the movement of substances "up the concentration gradient" (or against the concentration gradient)
high concentration, relatively. It is when a substance goes from an area of low concentration, to a place of
There are two types of bulk transport, namely:
Endocytosis
It is a process wherein a cell takes in, or engulfs, a substance or another cell. The cell extends its cellular membrane and surrounds the substance until it is the fully incorporated cytoplasm.
Exocytosis
It is a process wherein a cell releases particular contents
(e.g. proteins, carbohydrates, waste products) from
the cytoplasm by using vesicles as transport systems.
CHROMOSOMES
Chromosomes are
thread-like structures composed of DNA-protein complexes. It is located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and carries genetic information. Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes; humans, for example, have 46 arranged in 23 pairs. During cell division, chromosomes ensure accurate distribution of genetic material to daughter cells through processes like mitosis and meiosis. Their organization and function are critical for growth, development, and heredity.
CHROMOSOME
A chromosome is a rod-shaped structure observable within the nucleus during cell division and is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This DNA contains the hereditary instructions necessary for the creation of new organisms called genes.
Chromosomes are a long chain of DNA that are held together by a group of proteins. Like a spool of yarn, this chromosome can be unraveled forming the
chromatin.
The chromatin is made up of nucleosomes.
These are DNA Organization of Eukaryotic Chromosome strands that are wrapped around
Specialized proteins known as histones.
The gene is the section of DNA that stores an organism's genetic information. The organization of eukaryotic DNA facilitates regulation, replication, and ensures the accurate distribution of genetic material during cell division.
Parts of a Eukaryotic Chromosome Chromosomes consist of distinct regions crucial for their function during cell division. The p-arm and q-arm are the two main segments extending from the centromere, with the q-arm being the longer of the two.
The two main structures that are situated in the approximate center of chromosomes are the centromere and the kinetochore. The chromosome’s disc-shaped protein complex known as the kinetochore is where spindle fibers are formed Centromeric during cell division. The centromere is the area of the chromosome where the sister chromatids are attached. They play a crucial role in chromatid segregation during cell division.
Sister chromatids are two identical chromatids connected to each other. The telomeres are repeated sequences of DNA located at the ends of the chromosome. They protect the DNA from getting shorter during cell division.
Classification of Human Chromosomes to
Chromosomes can be classified in two ways, based on its genetic information
and the centromeric location.
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In terms of genetic information, chromosomes can be classified as autosomes or allosomes. An autosome is a chromosome carrying the genes that determines an organism's traits. Majority of an individual's chromosomes are autosomes, so humans have 22 pairs (or 44) autosomes.
An allosome, on the other hand, is a chromosome that helps determine whether a human is male or female. They are often referred to as sex chromosomes. There are two (2) kinds of allosomes, an X chromosome and a Y chromosome. Males have an X chromosome and a Y chromosome (XY). Females have two (2) X chromosomes (XX). There is a gene on the
chromosome that causes the development of male traits.
In terms of centromeric location, chromosomes can be classified based on the position of the centromere. It's location will affect the overall length of the
p-arm.
• Metacentric - The centromere sits in the center of the chromosome and separates it into two equal arms.
• Submetacentric - The centromere is located distant from the central region. One arm is much longer than the other in this situation.
Acrocentric - The centromere is near to one of the terminal ends. One arm is incredibly long, while the other is incredibly short.
• Telocentric - The centromere is positioned at one of the terminal ends.
KARYOTYPING
Karyotyping is a laboratory technique used to visualize and determine the number of chromosomes, and analyze the size and shape of chromosomes, specifically the banding patterns and centromere positions. in a sample of cells. It involves staining chromosomes and paring the same chromosomes. Karyotyping is commonly used in clinical genetics to detect chromosomal abnormalities. A karyogram is a visual representation of this.