Historical Summary: AP European History Exam Review

Unit 1: Renaissance and Exploration

Philosophy During the Renaissance

• Italian Renaissance marked a rebirth of Greco-Roman culture influencing education, culture, and art.
• Development of capitalism and modern banking techniques elevated Florence's prominence.
• Francesco Petrarch, father of humanism, emphasized admiration for human nature and classical achievements.
• Humanism focused on liberal arts, aiming to prepare individuals for civic leadership.
• Printing press spread humanist texts, challenging university and Church authority, promoting secularism.
• Civic humanism encouraged reading classics to improve citizenship; individualism promoted self-confidence and knowledge pursuit.
• Pico della Mirandola's "Oration on the Dignity of Man" emphasized free will and was the first banned book by the Church.

Art and Literature During the Renaissance

• Renaissance art shifted from religious themes to naturalism.
• Patronage from wealthy families (e.g., Medici) supported art glorifying them and their cities.
• Raphael's "School of Athens" illustrated the influence of ancient philosophers.
• Niccolò Machiavelli's "The Prince" advised leaders to adopt ruthless tactics, while Baldassare Castiglione's "The Courtier" set behavior standards, influencing gender roles.

The Northern Renaissance

• The Northern Renaissance maintained a religious focus with human-centered naturalism.
• Pieter Bruegel’s "The Harvesters" depicted everyday life.
• Christian humanism, led by Erasmus, sought religious reform and rejected predestination and Church authority.

The Spanish Inquisition

• Ferdinand and Isabella centralized power in Spain, making Catholicism the national religion and targeting Jews for conversion or expulsion.
• Anti-Semitism surged post-Black Death; the Inquisition forced conversions and expelled non-converts.

The Columbian Exchange and the Slave Trade

• Treaty of Tordesillas (1492) divided New World territories between Spain and Portugal.
• Spain focused on colonization and wealth extraction; Christopher Columbus initiated Spanish dominance over the Aztec and Inca empires.
• The Columbian Exchange introduced European diseases to the Americas, leading to native population decline and a shift to African slave labor for plantations.

Unit 2: Age of Reformation

The Protestant Reformation

• Post-Renaissance criticism of the Catholic Church surfaced due to corruption, leading to the Protestant Reformation.
• Martin Luther, founder of Lutheranism, argued salvation through faith alone and Bible authority, rejecting Church hierarchy.
• John Calvin introduced the concept of predestination.
• Conflict led to the Peace of Augsburg (1555), allowing regions to choose their religion.

The Catholic Reformation

• The Catholic Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, aiming to reform and regain followers.
• Council of Trent established reforms for spiritual renewal.
• Art styles (mannerism and baroque) served as Catholic propaganda.

The War of the Three Henrys

• Economic strains from Habsburg-Valois wars led to civil unrest in France.
• The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre saw thousands of Protestants murdered.
• Henry IV, a politique, sacrificed Protestantism for political stability.

The Thirty Years War

Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)

• Initiated by the defenestration of Prague; Catholics defeated Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain.

Danish Phase (1625-1629)

• King Christian IV of Denmark supported Protestants but was defeated; Treaty of Lubeck restored prior conditions.

Swedish Phase (1630-1635)

• Swedish intervention led to significant battles; Treaty of Prague (1635) strengthened Habsburgs.

French Phase (1635-1648)

• Cardinal Richelieu's strategy shifted power balance, leading to the Peace of Westphalia (1648) which ended the war and recognized Calvinism.

Unit 3: Absolutism and Constitutionalism

Absolutism

• Centralized powers emerged in Austria, Prussia, and Russia through military and taxation reforms.
• Peter the Great Westernized Russia; Louis XIV exemplified French absolutism.

English Constitutionalism

The English Civil War

• Stuart absolutism led to civil conflict; Charles I's actions sparked widespread opposition.
• Oliver Cromwell’s Protectorate replaced monarchy temporarily.

The Restoration

• Charles II’s reign saw attempts to balance tolerance with traditional power; James II's Catholicism prompted the Glorious Revolution.

Unit 4: Scientific, Philosophical, and Political Developments

The Scientific Revolution

• Copernicus proposed heliocentrism; Kepler formulated laws of planetary motion; Galileo advanced physics laws.
• Newton unified physics with the law of universal gravitation.

The Enlightenment

• Enlightenment thinkers advocated reason, progress, and individual rights.
• Key figures: Rousseau (social contract), Montesquieu (separation of powers), Voltaire (religious toleration), Locke (natural rights), and Wollstonecraft (women's rights).

The Consumer Revolution

• Shift towards wage earning allowed for increased consumerism and laid groundwork for industrialization.

Unit 5: Conflict, Crisis, and Reaction in the Late 18th Century

The Seven Years War (1756-1763)

• Global conflict that shifted balance of power towards Britain post-Treaty of Paris.

The French Revolution of 1789

Liberal Phase (1789-1792)

• Established constitutional monarchy and nationalized the Church; bourgeoisie led reforms.

Radical Phase (1793-1794)

• Led to Louis XVI's execution and the Reign of Terror under Robespierre.

Directory Phase (1795-1799)

• A reaction against the Terror leading to a return to moderate governance.

Napoleonic Phase (1799-1815)

• Napoleon's rise to power reshaped Europe; the Napoleonic Code established legal reforms.

The Congress of Vienna

• Major powers re-established order post-Napoleon, promoting conservative policies to suppress liberal movements.

Unit 6: Industrialization and Its Effects

The Industrial Revolution

• Transition to industrial economies began in England; significant technological advancements revolutionized production.
• Changes led to new social classes and intensified class conflict.

Intellectual Developments in the 1800s

• Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged religious views; Marx's socialism emphasized class struggle and the need for revolutions.

The Second Industrial Revolution

• Innovations in electricity and petroleum transformed industries; urbanization increased despite poor living conditions.

Unit 7: 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Political Philosophies in the 1800s

• Conservatism: focus on tradition and stability.
• Liberalism: championed individual rights and economic freedom.
• Socialism: sought equality and collective ownership.
• Nationalism: promoted unity based on shared identity; Romanticism valued emotion and nature.

Second French Empire (1852-1870)

• Louis Napoleon established authoritarian rule, promoting social progress while curbing political freedoms.

Crimean War (1853-1856)

• Highlighted Russia's need for modernization, leading to reforms by Tsar Alexander II.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italian Unification

• Nationalism influenced state structures; key figures like Cavour and Garibaldi drove Italian unification.

German Unification (1871)

• Otto von Bismarck's strategies enabled Prussia’s dominance and German unity under a conservative framework.

Unit 8: 20th-Century Global Conflicts

World War I (1914-1918)

• Caused by militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism; concluded with the Treaty of Versailles.

The Russian Revolutions

• Led to the rise of communist governance in Russia, culminating in the establishment of the Soviet Union.

Women's Rights Advancements After World War I

• Women's roles expanded in the workforce, leading to suffrage movements.

Unit 9: Cold War and Contemporary Europe

East-West Rivalry After World War II

• Marshall Plan aimed to rebuild Europe and counteract communism; NATO formed as a military alliance.

The Cold War (1947-1991)

• Characterized by arms races and ideological conflicts.

The Revolutions of 1989

• Saw the end of communism in Eastern Europe, leading to German reunification and the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

Globalization

• Post-Cold War era marked by increased economic interdependence and the rise of multinational corporations.
• The European Union was established to promote economic cooperation and political unity.