hi welcome back to educator.com this is the lesson on metabolism and nutrition so with the basics of metabolism uh the word metabolism is often misused by people I've talked to um usually people just talk about metabolism in terms of oh she's so lucky she gets to eat whatever she wants her metabolism must be really high there is truth to that statement but uh people only think of metabolism as uh keeping weight off or metabolism the other way uh gaining weight but metabolism the actual definition of it is that it is the sum of all chemical reactions within an organism so it includes all the breakdown of nutrients that that you need to do through digestion and all of the building of molecules that you need to do to maintain your body and stay healthy so metabolism involves a basic formula that would be catabolism plus anabolism so the catabolism part is the breakdown of organic molecules so every time you break down a sugar that you've eaten a lipid that you've eaten which is a fat A protein that you've eaten that's a catabolic kind of reaction and it would involve the release of energy anabolism is the opposite it's the synthesis of new organic molecules which typically requires energy and energy input to get those things linked together so when you build muscle proteins um when you make glycogen which is a a sugar storage molecule that's mostly found in the liver those are anabolic reactions um so the an anabolism part what are you doing it for well it's for structural maintenance and repairs um for support of growth so as you grow of course you need to build uh more molecules uh for secretions um you need to build hormones you need to build secretory products uh that you're going to be letting go through glands and then for nutrient reserves like I just mentioned earlier glycogen um if it's been hours since you've eaten you can release sugars from that giant storage molecule that we call glycogen and that gets you through until the next meal the way that I remember the difference between catabolism and anabolism is I remember the term anabolic steroids so if you follow Sports especially you hear about anabolic steroids that athletes will use to um bulk up their mus musculature a lot more than they could naturally without it and the reason why it's an anabolic steroid is uh it is a molecule that um mimics testosterone and it allows them to have a lot more anabolic development of their muscle tissue they are they are building a lot more muscle proteins than is natural so anabolism anabolic steroids uh the building up of organic molecules so we look at nutrients that we've taken in our diet um there are four major uh organic compounds uh in terms of looking at them and and their structural differences and what they're for carbohydrates is one of them they're also called sugars lipids also known as fats proteins uh one of the more important ones and they're all important but uh proteins make up the majority of your um solid matter if you took all the water out of an organism the next most abundant substance is going to be protein uh extremely important for cellular uh structure and functionality and the nucleic acids you can't deny the importance of nucleic acids that's DNA and RNA um and it's interesting you know have that under nutrients um but anytime you eat um animal tissue uh plant tissue even if it's dead you're going to have these molecules in there that you are also uh going to consume and you can break down those nucleic acids to make uh your own uh nucleic acids in terms of straining together new DNA new RNA uh vitamins and minerals vitamins definitely also an organic compound uh the reason why these are separate is vitamins are those um those molecules that you don't have the ability to make enough of them on your own uh you do have to take them into your diet um for instance if you sto taking in um vitamin A uh early on in your life that could cause your eyesight to suffer um but people who have enough vitamin A in their diet they may gradually uh need glasses but in terms of their Eye Health it's going to be uh maximize by having enough vitamin A so you do have reserves of vitamins typically in your body but if you don't take them in your diet you're going to run out and then minerals uh we'll cover these towards the end minerals uh you get from electrolytes stuff like sodium potassium Etc Oh and before we move on uh this picture right here if you're wondering what that is these are a kind of packing peanut like if you got a big box with something shipped to you instead of using Styrofoam peanuts these are actually made of starch so this is entirely natural um you could eat them if you wanted to it's kind of like uh um those puffy cheese snacks without any flavoring um but yeah completely natural um a biodegradable uh replacement for styrofoam packing peanuts carbohydrate structure so we just talked about packing peanuts made of carbohydrates on the previous slide carbohydrates these are sugars and the interesting thing about the name carbohydrate is that when you look at the carbon atoms in one of these molecules it's surrounded by water H2O H and O So together this is water together this is water carbo like carbon hydrate like water so it's an easy way to remember the structure of a carbohydrate and this is the typical basic sugar structure uh in terms of a little ratio um n is some variable so we could put six in there okay so for every six carbon atoms you're going to have twice as many hydrogens and the same amount of oxygens as carbons uh we could put an eight in here we could put 100 in here um any integer uh will work so um you can have slight variation of this uh depending on the precise sugar you're talking about but typically more often than not you're going to see this ratio so if you counted these up you would see that if there were six carbons it could be glucose um if there are um twice as many you're going to get something like a disaccharide which is like two little glucoses or monosaccharides put together you're going to see the ring or linear form uh um this is the ring form down here of course it it looks like a little ring this would be known as a hexo sugar because it has six sides glucose is a hexo sugar this is the linear form you tend to see the ring form more often in the human body uh it's more stable molecularly than the linear form but you can occasionally see this and the way you go from linear to ring or vice versa is carbon number one would connect to carbon number six and the uh the double bond here would actually go away when you make uh that connection um carbon makes uh four bonds if if you took chemistry you know that carbon likes to make four bonds that's why uh with every carbon here you're going to see four little lines around it whether it's a double bond or single Bond over here another way of writing this is the H could be sticking out here a little hydrogen hydrogen sticking out here and then the o or hydroxide here but this is a shorthand version speaking of shorthand when you look at this ring form uh this is classic organic chemistry every corner here that's not labeled as o is carbon so there's a carbon here carbon carbon carbon carbon and what they're leaving out is the H it's just implied that on the other side of this o is going to be an H on the other side of this o is going to be an H uh same with over here so if you're wondering why is there stuff missing that's why so monosaccharides are single sugars glucose is the classic one uh disaccharides is a is a double sugar so we could connect these two glucoses to make something called maltose maltose is a disaccharide that's where you get malt sugar from and the way it happens is uh you make a glycosidic linkage which is just a fancy term for saying a bond between uh two monosaccharides and the way you do that is through a dehydration synthesis or dehydration reaction and the way that I remember that term is all you need to do is take water out that's why it's dehydration so here's an H here's an O on the next sugar when these two leave together H2O is gone so that's why it's dehydration and what you left with is this oxygen so if I then erase what has has left effectively the water is gone the way that you get this glycosidic linkage is through that that oxygen connection so you're going to have carbon connected to oxygen and then connected over there now the angle because of this drawing is not precise but um that's what you're going to see as a glycosidic linkage is you're going to have this oxygen atom linking up the two neighboring uh sugars so a disaccharide um includes maltose fructose is another one um which you're going to find in in fruits uh there's a lot of other disaccharide names but those are a couple polysaccharides is when you have bigger sugars you keep putting little sugars strung together and you're going to eventually get things like starch so so examples of polysaccharides starch which is the way that plants uh store sugars you also have glycogen glycogen is how we store sugars uh in our liver and and muscles um starch and glycogen both made of lots and lots and lots of glucoses it's just the way that the glucoses are bonded together is slightly different in terms of um the way the uh the the glyco cytic linkage looks and then another good example of a polysaccharide is is kiten I know it looks like chitin but kiten uh you find that in the exoskeletons of arthropods and also in the cell walls of fungi um you also can use kiten to make uh surgical threads that you can um you know sew up something s surgically and they actually will dissolve um those those kiten threads will decompose eventually U which is kind of cool so dehydration synthesis is how you get Two Sugars together the opposite like if I wanted to break these two sugars apart is called a hydrolysis and that's made of hydro and Lis Hydro means water Lis means a breaking apart or splitting apart so water splitting them apart and it's the opposite of that dehydration reaction we just went over that if water left to connect these two water going in can also uh do the opposite it can separate them uh sugars are water soluble that's obvious if you um you know put p pieces of bread and water you see them dissolve pretty easily uh pasta you know when we boil pasta or some other noodle um it's very obvious that sugars which make up uh the majority of pasta it's it's water soluble it it is a polar kind of thing rather than nonpolar which is the lipid side and hey the the purpose of carbohydrates in general is they are a really quick efficient energy source um that's how we get the most of um our our energy mole ules in our cells ATP is is kind of like an energy currency that fuels our cells and keeps us alive and the easiest way to get that is breaking down carbohydrates or sugars so we need to talk about aerobic respiration uh this is how you actually get energy out of the breakdown of organic molecules and keeping your cells going so it's the process of breaking down carbohydrates or other organic compounds that you can um sort of turn into a carbohydrate like molecule with the help of oxygen that's what's aerobic about it uh that you need to breathe in oxygen to make ATP denos triphosphate which you're going to hear more about on the next slide and that is the energy molecule there are other molecules that are similar but ATP very common most of the process occurs in mitochondria so if you took biology you learned that mitochondria are kind of the powerhouses of the cell that's where you get ATP from typically if if you're eukaryotic like we are so here's a mitochondrion mitochondrian this is an actual um electron microscope taking a picture of mitochondria in human cells this is sort of your classic um computer generated model of of what a mitochondrion looks like and if you look CL carefully or closely at this particular diagram you can see that the uh the outside is a double membrane inner and outer membrane the inside you have these U membranous folds and it's called christe Uh and then on the inside you have the Matrix so you do have this this like uh two sets of membranes here uh that's why the space in between the chiste and the inner part of the D membrane on the outside is called the intermembrane space uh but we're going to cover these parts because aerobic respiration it starts out outside of the mitochondrion but then it ends up going in speaking of the term mitochondria that is plural mitochondrion with an o n at the end is uh is singular so the three main parts of aerobic respiration using oxygen to break down sugar to make ATP is glycolysis which is the initial breakdown of the sugar molecule the kreb cycle which takes the products of glycolysis and goes through a cycle to to help make other molecules that are going to transfer energy to the end of the process and the end of the process is oxida phosphorilation where we're making a lot of ATP the energy molecule and by the end you're producing approximately 36 ATP uh the reason why it's approximate is depending on the conditions inside the cell at that moment sometimes it could be 34 sometimes it could be 38 uh but generally we get 36 ATP from one glucose molecule being broken down with oxygen so what is this ATP molecule so ATP is adenosine triphosphate a TP and here's a model of it so where does the name come from well this part here you got these uh two rings of of carbon with nitrogen and some hydrogen thrown in there uh you have adenine and adenine is a nitrogenous base that you would find in DNA and RNA but here it has nothing to do with genetics uh you're using adenine as as kind of like a placeholder for what's going on here and then what is this well this is ribos a kind of monosaccharide um simple sugar uh it is a pentos sugar because it's five-sided uh but adenine ribos and then three oops phosphates so here's where the name comes from adenosine so the combination of these two adenosine instead of saying adinan ribos three phosphates adenosine triphosphate three phosphates uh so that's where the name comes from and you're going to see the word or abbreviation a DP also on the slide that's when one of these phosphates is gone and then it's diphosphate so a Denine triphosphate is kind of like a charged battery that you can use to power something in a cell when you go back to a DP a Denine diphosphate the battery has no more juice in a sense the other analogy I I've heard is um like a rubber band uh if I stretch the rubber band that's ATP if I let it go it goes back to ADP and and to stretch it back again you got to add that third phosphate you do see amp in cells as well adenosine mono phosphate but uh we're going to talk a lot about how you get ATP from ADP in the next few slides so like I said it's the energy currency of a cell you can spend it in terms of uh powering anything that needs to happen in a cell that requires energy so ATP is broken down into that adenosine diphosphate plus the other phosphate so when ATP breaks apart you get these two uh and that's a release of energy that's how you spend uh the currency to get it back you got to put these back together and that requires energy to to attach them back together and that's how you get ATP so up here when you break it down that is an exogic reaction here it would be endergonic the input of energy and amazingly the average muscle cell which is doing a lot of work in a typical day uh doing a lot of movement of course the average muscle cell produces 10 million ATB molecules per second if it's working that's amazing to think about um that's mind-boggling uh that a microscopic cell is producing um millions and millions of these molecules every second just to keep it going all right so to start aerobic respiration is glycolysis and the word glycolysis glyco Lis glyco meaning sugar meaning break down like the word lome it's it's one of those organel in a cell that break stuff down like like foreign foreign bodies uh U pathogens waste in this case we're breaking apart a sugar glucose is usually the one and pyrovate is what you get at the end here uh that is a three carbon um half of glucose in a sense and it occurs in the cytoplasm I've read that the average glucose molecule doesn't easily fit into uh mitochondrion it's broken down into these two which then enter the mitochondrion to finish the aerobic respiration process so let me take you through this step by step uh and do my best to simplify it so phase one what you're looking at here is these lavender magenta whatever purple dots whatever you want to call them these represent the carbons so we're focusing on the carbons of glucose glucose contains six carbons what you're not seeing here is the H's and O's and and that's fine because we're concentrating on the carbon count here so to initially get it started they call it the energy investment phase and you have to invest two atps now remember ATP that's usable energy the phosphates come off of it to give you two a DP and then you can see in the next shot these little yellow dots they're inorganic phosphates that's why it's Pi not not Pi like 3.14 um this is an inorganic phosphate inorganic phosphate and they came from these two ATP molecules then you get a splitting of this glucose in half so now g3p I believe stands for glycer alide 3 phosphate you don't need to know that but um so you now have kind of like a half a sugar with a phosphate attached to it half a sugar with a phosphate attached to it and the next thing that happens is some of the hydrogens are stripped off of this and you end up getting what's called nadh so initially you have something called nad+ I'll explain this nad+ is is like an electron carrier think of it as a boat or Shuttle for electrons and when it takes them somewhere and the electrons go into a reaction the flow of the electrons can power the making of ATP eventually at the end so this is uh kind of investing uh to get way more ATP way at the end uh so NAD plus when electrons or hydrogen which contains electrons comes onto it you get nadh so this is this is like the powered NAD plus that's going to dump its electrons uh later on and so you make this in the next uh few parts of Rogue respiration for the payoff at the end you're going to see at the end the nadh will give up the H protons and electrons uh to help make a lot of ATP at the end the next thing that happens is you know have a vacancy here uh remember carbon always likes to have four bonds and something is left uh the bond is gone and free there's free phosphates around they're put into place here so now you have these little halves of glucose each with two phosphates and the great thing is uh in the next step is where you get some payoff remember this was an energy investment you had to invest two but you know at the end you get four ATP and it comes from a attaching these four phosphates onto four a DPS and then you get 4 ATP and the great thing is 4 ATP more than the what we invested initially 4 ATP minus the two still a net gain total gain of two ATP so just breaking down sugar gives you a little energy in itself but we're going to get a lot more later on um in addition to the making of net gain of 2 ATP the two nadhs you also have two pyrates also called pyruvic acid so these two pyruvates each undergo a slight modification and enter What's called the kreb cycle so two KB Cycles happen uh one cycle for each of these to continue the process of aerobic respiration and these pyrates they're going to be going in the mitochondria so the kreb cycle also known as the citric acid cycle because uh the first part of the cycle involves the making of citric acid but a scientist named Krebs is the one who who named it named it after himself and uh you know it's in honor of him and the kreb cycle you can sometimes see it uh labeled as um uh TCA cycle the citric acid cycle but uh usually these are interchangeable so pyate gets modified into what's called a cetal COA and COA stands for co-enzyme a it's shuttling this acetal to the kreb cycle which is in the mitochondrial Matrix if you remember from the previous image here's a mitochondrion if we looked at a cross-section of it um the kreb Cycles they are happening in here the mitochondrial Matrix which is within that chiste uh the uh glycolysis stuff happened outside here happened in the cytoplasm and those pyrates come in and there's a lot of action going on here kreb Cycles Galore so it takes two pyrates attaches them to a four carbon molecule called oxy acetic acid or oxaloacetate and then eventually breaks that down uh the citric acid down uh to make more electron carriers and you actually do get a little ATP out of it so what initially happens let's use um let's use red for um the carbons so here's p overate and eventually you're going to get this out of it so what happens is pyate uh is modified um to make this little acetal and what happens is you get let's use a blue box this is co-enzyme a this helps modify and take pyrovate into the kreb cycle uh once it's here by the way the little blue box leaves and goes and picks up another pyrovate the other little pieces that happen here is you do make some nadh so in addition to a CO2 leaving that's how you get from pyate with three carbons to this little acetal which was attached to here acetal COA um that's how you get one less carbon is CO2 leaves and guess what happens that CO2 we exhale it you're going to see a couple co2's leave uh in the kreb cycle as well and and that's waste that you're going to inevitably breathe out that's waste from the process of breaking down sugar um so here's basically what happens this is how it gets modified to give you the acetal which is U helped to get modified from the COA and this joins in with a four carbon molecule to give you remember that's called oxaloacetate or oxotic acid this is citrate or citric acid yeah the same citric acid you'd find in citrus fruits but uh we are producing this constantly every second of every day of our life in kreb Cycles um the the cool thing about remembering the sequence here is that the first two steps are identical in terms of uh what ends up happening the first step is that and by the way these are all catalyzed or C um help they they are helped to occur uh from enzymes so these are enzyme catalyzed reactions um they don't all just happen naturally this breakdown doesn't just happen unassisted uh there's enzymes um proteins that help all of these things happen uh in sequence so the first step is that CO2 leaves and guess what that happens again in the Second Step CO2 leaves and will eventually get down to the four carbon molecule again it's not quite the same as this because some other things will be stripped off of this molecu but you can see that once we get to this point no more CO2 is leaving because at the end here we have to come back regenerate this uh four carbon molecule in the first two steps also you make some nadh yay the more nadh you make the more ATP you inevitably inevitably will produce at the end uh so see those those two uh steps in the beginning basically the same next thing that happens you make an ATP I'm simplifying this a bit um so ADP comes over and gains a phosphate to become ATP yay where does the phosphate come from well um there's a molecule um GTP that helps uh get the phosphate into place so there actually a few little Min steps here that I'm that I'm glossing over but the end result from from this part of the kreb cycle is you get the production of one ATP so each kreb cycle does give you another ATP that's great next step we make something called fadh2 fadh2 is very similar to nadh the hydrogens that fad fad gains it's going to dump off in the last part part of rubic respiration to get a lot of ATP um by the way fad NAD plus what do those stand for uh I don't remember they are long names and that's why we have abbreviations for them so fad also a uh electron proton carrier or raft if you want to think of it that way and now it's carrying that stuff it stripped them off of this molecule one more step and then we are home free next thing that happens is you get one more nadh and we're going to add up the products the stuff that we take away from this in a moment we wouldn't count this as a product even though we're left over with this four carbon molecule oxaloacetate because it needs to go back into this SCB cycle it's not something we have taking away from the cycle what we are taking away is how many dhes 1 2 3 um you could count this one as well a lot of people refer to this as the intermediate step between glycolysis and kreb cycle but you do get a few nadh's you get one ATP one fh2 two co2system spiration and next we're going to the chist day of the mitochondria to actually uh make a load of ATP oxidative phosphorilation oxidative um you may think oh because of oxygen um that's fine if you want to remember that uh but the oxidative part um when you oxidize something you're breaking it apart electrons are coming off of it uh when you reduce something electrons are gained so oxidation reduction or or you know red dox reactions is another way to put it uh you learn about those in chemistry if you get those mixed up I remember that since electrons are negatively charged uh when you say that something is reduced you're adding electrons so more negatives like reduces it um in terms of like if you think of a number line oxidative or oxidation um that has to do with uh the opposite um you actually are are breaking something apart so nadh and fadh2 they're oxidized in this process they lose what they gained when they were reduced um and they end up helping to make a lot of ATP and that's phosphorilation when you are adding uh phosphates to something you are phosphor lating it and you're uh phosphor lating ADP to make a lot of ATP so now all these nadhs and fadh2s that were made uh in glycolysis in the CB cycle you actually use them here so you can see that here's our nadh that was made in the mitochondrial Matrix this is a simplified version of the chiste membrane it's it's just a rectangle here but uh typically you'd see it kind of uh you know uh weavy but anyways uh all along the chiste that in memory in the mitochondria you're going to have uh these these proteins embedded in the chiste in that inner membrane and they're going to be shuttling along electrons and what happens to the protons is all these H pluses that's that's a proton H+ is is just a proton so nadh gave up protons so does fadh2 and they go across the membrane into the intermembrane space so you get a buildup of all kinds of protons here it's like um what's going to end up happening is it's basically um kind of like diffusion of protons in a sense that's going to be happening and they actually nickname it uh chemiosmosis chemiosmosis is a fancy term for uh the flow of protons that's going to end up going through this ATP synthes to make a lot of ATP and the electron transport chain is the other uh part that happens here and I'm going to use blue to highlight that um so all along here you get electrons and electrons their final destination is actually going to be oxygen uh they call oxygen gas here and then finally we're hearing about oxygen aerobic respiration they call oxygen gas here the final electron acceptor it also technically is accepting protons too because you end up making water um it's like the opposite of photosynthesis in photosynthesis water is broken down and give you electrons protons and oxygen gas here it's the opposite oxygen gas is accepting these electrons moving through and then you get water um the water that's produced here in aerobic respiration is not enough to hydrate a human being I I've heard that some animals in extremely Aid dry conditions uh can go for days and days and days without drinking water and for them the amount of water that they're producing in aerobic respiration is enough to keep them hydrated that's not true for us uh but water is a product of aerobic respiration so what happens to the protons the protons build up in here and they are going to be fueling directly the making of ATP it's like water flowing through a water wheel uh the water turns the wheel and then and you end up getting something being powered the flow of electrons through ATP synthes it's kind of like a turbine that spins and and as it spins it helps attach phosphates to ADP and you get a load of ATP um uh close to 30 ATP from from from doing this and that's amazing uh to consider because we got a net gain of two from glycolysis uh we got a total of two uh from the two KB Cycles so the vast majority of ATP you're making during oxidated phosphorilation uh and then yeah once you have NAD plus left over and fad that's going to go back and into the citric acid cycle it some of it will exit um mitochondria uh um there's probably actually already enough NAD plus outside the mitochondria for glycolysis but nonetheless the point is that the Cycles keep going as long as you're uh supplying glucose sugar and oxy you're going to keep having uh aerobic respiration occurring so what happens when there's not enough oxygen it's called Anor robic respiration so after glycolysis glycolysis keep in mind does not require oxygen there was no oxygen involved there after glycolysis the initial breakdown of sugar if enough O2 is not available pyruvates the product of glycolysis undergo fermentation and what we do as animals or human human beings specifically is lactic acid fermentation there's also alcohol fermentation which we take advantage of uh when we make alcoholic beverages or even when we bake bread um yeast uh do alcohol uh or alcoholic fermentation but we do lactic acid fermentation so lactic acid uh is formed after glycolysis if there's no O2 and that's what causes a burning sensation in our muscles if we go for a long run or do a lot of uh intense activity in a short amount of time and you being out of breath and you get that burning sensation in your muscles it's lacked again acid um the more active you are like if you're an Olympic Athlete uh you're probably not feeling that lactic acid burn uh because the efficiency of your body has been improved over years uh but lactic acid uh research has shown that um you know it makes sense that it would kind of slow you down it's like ah my muscles hurt but what lactic acid also does in your bloodstream is it actually stimulates you to uh breathe more to take more breaths which is going to get more O2 in so that inev ably uh you'll be able to stop doing that Anor robic respiration and go back to aerobic once you've gotten a little rest so fermentation the uh specifically the lactic acid variety produces only the ATP from glycolysis no additional ATP happened from fermentation um that means that anobi respiration as a whole the total amount of ATP is just a net gain of two there's no kreb cycle there's no oxidated phosphorilation uh because the hey there's no making of ATP during this fermentation process so here's lactic acid fermentation glucose initially glycosis happens you get the two pyruvates or pyruvic acids and here's the real fermentation part um NAD is regenerated it's the opposite of what happened in um glycolysis we made nadh so you can see that the nadh formed from glycolysis gives back the hes it gained uh to make NAD plus again and then once you add that stuff from from NAD back NAD uh H back to pyruvate you end up getting to lactic acids or here they call it lactate uh and that's what causes that burning sensation in your muscles um you can do anob respiration uh for a period of time in your muscles no problem anerobic respiration in your brain that's that's a problem um your brain without enough oxygen gas for several minutes uh can result in brain death so something like your muscles can deal with anerobic respiration other tissues their demand for oxygen and need for oxygen uh is even more all right so I mentioned earlier that um you could have other organic molecules be uh broken apart for energy besides sugar now sugar is the classic one that is broken down but you can end up making um glucose through gluconeogenesis uh from other organic precursors like you could take lactic acid and make glucose out of it um you're probably going to need uh two lactic acids because lactic acid has three carbons glycerol which is a part of lipids it actually has a similar um um beginning to the name uh you know glycolysis glucose glycerol glycerol is also three carbons and you can take amino acids the way that you take amino acids the building blocks of proteins and make glucose out of it is deamination your taking off what's called an amino group which makes it an amino acid so deamination is one example of how gluconeogenesis can happen so you're taking uh an amino acid here um and through the help of an enzyme uh and and adding water you end up getting NH3 uh this right here uh is an amino group on an amino acid taken off and then this uh resembles a sugar much more and it can easily enter somewhere in that arobic respiration process sometimes um you're modifying it to make glucose um you can also sometimes modify a molecule so it can become an acetal and and go straight into the kreb cycle but either way um gluconeogenesis is a way that you can end up getting energy um through oric respiration from other organic molecules glycogenesis would be making glycogen a huge polysaccharide a storage kind of sugar from ittybitty glucoses the monosaccharides uh and then the opposite glycogenolysis uh remember Lis is the breakdown this is the breakdown of glycogen to make glucose so here we're making the storage molecule here we're breaking apart the storage molecule um insulin is a hormone that gets sugars out of your bloodstream and packaged away as glycogen so glycogenesis would happen thanks to insulin glycogenolysis would happen thanks to something called glucagon which you can hear more about in the endocrine system lessons so now moving on to lipids lipid structure and function they're called fats and a classic example is triglycerides so um you can have a fat that's not a triglyceride um like cholesterol okay that's that's also a lipid that's also a fatty substance uh but triglycerides are the classic one that you you hear a lot about in textbooks so what is a triglyceride made of it's made of a glycerol attached to Three fatty acids that's where the name Tri glyceride comes from so glycer from that glycerol Tri Three fatty acid chains attached to it so the glycerol similar to a sugar um here is the glycerol portion right here you see the three carbons hydrogen's attached to it and initially they have Little O's here that's what is is the the term uh all like alcohol um they have O's H hydroxides attached to them but what happens to the H well when you attach the uh Three fatty acids on here uh that reaction makes it so that actually it's just oxygen attached to a carbon oxygen attached to a carbon remember from before with uh those ring structures the the ring shape of the glucose at the corners here the shorthand version is hey these are carbons what's attached to the carbons hydrogens so the other name for these fatty acid chains which I'm going to use red for is hydrocarbon chains so here's a fatty acid here's a fatty acid chain they can vary in length depending on the precise fatty acid chain that's attached to it because they all have different names you get different triglycerides there's a lot of different triglycerides uh lipids are non-polar opposite of water they are not soluble in water um you know just drizzling oil like vegetable oil in a a pan of water it's easy to see that they they don't like mixing together uh so this is the only or organic compound as as a whole that's always non-polar and what are these four energy source insulation and hormone synthesis you actually can get a heck of a lot of energy uh out of a lipid molecule um per gram you can get more ATP out of it than sugars actually insulation um think about all the lipids under your skin at the lowest parts or deepest parts of your um integumentary system um it's a cushioning it's also insulatory in terms of helping to keep you warm and then hormone synthesis there are some hormones without fat in your body you would not be able to make uh estrogen is an example um that's why women who end up having a very very low like dangerously low body fat percentage sometimes will um their their menstrual cycle will stop completely uh because they've stopped making enough estrogen to keep it going and over time that's that's not very healthy oh and one more thing before I move on um right here you see an additional Line This is a double bond uh the Double bonds here make little kinks in the fatty acid chains and that's going to come up in a little bit with u the difference between saturated fats versus unsaturated fats here we go saturated versus unsaturated fats so saturated fats have no double Bonds in the hydrocarbon chains so when you don't have um double Bonds in that chain of hydrocarbon so just carbon carbon carbon carbon carbon carbon carbon with h is attached all over it if you have no double bonds you don't get little kinks the the double bond can make it kind of Bend so they're all flat when they're flat I like to think of it as like this okay this textbook um all of these Pages these hundreds of pages are all very flat with respect to each other They're Not Bent uh they're not folded and so it's easy to close the book and make it very dense think of a lot of um saturated fats as being that way so saturated fats are typically solid at room temperature like butter so why is butter solid it's because of the saturated fat that you end up getting from from typically animal uh tissue and if you have a lot of those saturated fats stacked closely together they will be denser they will be more solid unlike unsaturated fats which have at least one double bond in the hydrocarbon chains and the double bonds make it Kink and here's the example I'd like to use for that um here's a flat piece of paper which you know like I said earlier if it was saturated fats they could be stacked really close together but imagine I make it bendy like this okay now these are representing those double bonds causing kinks in the chains if I lay a bunch of these on top of each other it's hard to make them densely compacted and that's why unsaturated fats tend to be um liquid at room temperature like this olive oil um don't get me wrong olive oil vegetable oils can have a little bit of saturated fat in them but nowhere near as much as uh butter um so you're going to see more unsaturated fats in oils from plants so yeah typically liquid room temperature uh like vegetable oils so what does this have to do with your health well the higher un unsaturated fat you have in your diet uh the less likely it is you're going to get plaques developing um in in your arteries specifically coronary arteries that's where you're going to getting a heart attack so if you have a diet high in saturated fat uh the amount of saturated fat flowing through your bloodstream in addition to stuff like cholesterol you're more likely to get um fatty streaks little streaks of fats on on the inside of those blood vessels and over time uh plaques can develop uh that cause um the width of that artery to get more and more narrow and the more narrow the less blood flow and inevitably that affects your heart in a negative way so keeping the amount of saturated fats down in your diet important um unsaturated fats uh they're a good thing lipid catabolism so catabolism remember is a breakdown uh so lipolysis or lipolysis is the breakdown of lipids for energy use um so when we take let's say a triglyceride and break it apart what happens the glycerol well the glycerol is converted to pyrovate which remember also has three carbons like glycerol and it enters the kreb cycle remember modified pyate becomes acetal COA and enters the KB cycle fatty acids are processed by enzymes to make acetyl COA uh so you can actually chop up a fatty acid into lots of different acetyl coas because fatty acids can be like you know let's say 40 carbons long sometimes um or or less beta oxidation so related to those fatty acids when you take fatty acids and you break them down into two carbon fragments to make this um something amazing happens in terms of the amount of ATP you get out of that from one 18 carbon fatty acid chain you can actually get 144 ATP from just that one chain that's more than from um glucose so you might wonder well then why doesn't our body uh just use fats uh way more than than sugars if it's more efficient well um the speed at which breakdown of a sugar happens way way faster um yes if if you're taking in sugars and lipids your body will use some of those lipids uh to break down um uh them into make a making ATP but the ease at which sugar is broken down to make ATP is is the reason why our body tends to rely on that more um a common misconception about diets is people will uh just have like hardly any fat intake but their intake of sugar may be too high well your body will actually sometimes take that excess sugar and it can store it as fat um so you got to you know watch your diet not just looking at no fat um where your calories calories coming from uh as a whole all right so in terms of making lipids um lipogenesis um the origin of lipids that's the building of lipid molecules um some fatty acids though can't be built um in terms of um you know stringing together that chain and then attaching it to a glycerol and they're called essential fatty acids like lenic acid or linolenic acid those you have to get in your diet um you're not making them on your own uh the others yeah lipoproteins the name says it all it's a lipid protein complex uh so when we look at um lipoproteins the first one uh is actually made in your intestinal epithelium um so as you eat fats in the lining of your intestine you're going to make these uh kyom microns and um you know too much of these yes your your amount of um lipid molecules in your bloodstream may be too high um and then inevitably you end up storing uh too many fats in your adapost tissue which is at the deepest part of your um integ system uh next up we have these four okay these four all are made in the liver unlike the kyom microns so very low density lipoproteins um if you look at the the sequence of these down to ldls um ldls and then finally hdls are going to have slightly more percentage of protein involved um so very low density lipoproteins intermediate density lipoproteins um I mean they're important in terms of um um producing molecules um shuttling molecules but when we look at ldls and hdls you may have heard about these in terms of um good and bad cholesterol ldls are are known as bad cholesterol and then hdl's are the good cholesterol so if you get a blood panel done um in terms of testing your cholesterol level uh like maybe your cholesterol level is um 160 which is actually very healthy um but you may not have have um a celebration for that if your LDL percentage of that is is really high compared to your hdls so that's why in addition to the total number you get for cholesterol levels they also want to look at um what's the HDL number and what's the LDL number so the reason why uh low density lipoproteins are called bad uh cholesterol is because this is the kind of lipo protein that takes um lipids to your peripheral tissues like into the bloodstream and to your tissues so if you're doing uh too much of that uh the cholesterol levels in your bloodstream um bad um but hdl's is is the opposite in the sense that um highdensity lipoproteins they they take fats out of um your bloodstream uh for the sense of storage and so that's why uh the bad is bad and good is good um depending on the person um this is not the best term to use uh because somebody could have a uh an HDL level that is actually too high um and just because your LDL is high doesn't mean you're going to have a heart attack soon um so those are just general terms um that people look at in terms of measuring HDL versus LDL so now on to proteins this is the most abundant organic compound in the body like I said earlier in the lesson if you took all the water out of a body protein is the next most abundant substance uh the building blocks of proteins are amino acids and like uh sugars and like lipids the way that you put together amino acids is a dehydration synthesis uh the way that you break them apart is hydrolysis and it's the same with attaching uh those three fatty acids to the glycerol so those uh dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis terms are applicable here as well they are water soluble as a whole what I mean by that is your protein as a whole this is a computer generated model of protein structure so this thing as a whole is okay with water um the whole thing would be considered water soluble but there are some amino acids that would be inside of this potentially that are non-polar so there are 20 amino acids in nature um some of them are non-polar but the majority okay with water many functions uh that's why in one of the first slides of the lesson I said that proteins are arguably the most most important because they do so much uh you can't live without uh carbs and lipids or nucleic acids but check out all the things that proteins do uh so support um in terms of on a cellular level the cytoskeleton that's keeping the inside of the cell stabilize made of protein um in terms of the connective tissue in your body that's supporting organs as a whole supporting your body as a whole it's made of proteins uh protein fibers movement so movement within a cell um movement of your body as a whole happens because of protein your muscle proteins allow you to move extremely important uh transport so not only shuttling uh molecules through the bloodstream like attached to a protein hemoglobin is a classic example that's a protein but also uh transport in and out of cells um membrane proteins channel proteins buffering uh if it wasn't for proteins um certain molecules would have greater ability to harm you in terms of pH levels so buffering very important enzymatic action enzymes there are millions of enzymes uh they all are made of protein so they are um protein molecules that help a reaction along hormone synthesis there are a lot of proteins um in your body designed just for making hormones um one of them would be epinephrine adrenaline made of protein and defect one example of that would be antibodies so antibodies which uh you know Target bacteria forign Invaders in your body those are made of protein oh and if you're wondering about this image um that's going to come up in a sec in terms of um the different structural levels of protein um you can have these little helical shaped um protein parts and you can have little sheets that are pleated um there's a lot of different shapes you can get from the uh structural parts of of proteins amino acids there are 20 different ones in nature and that's because there are 20 different R groups so this is a variable um R sometimes it'll be an H there uh sometimes it could be something called a Benzene ring um sometimes it could be an O all these different R groups uh here that make the 20 amino acids different from each other the majority of amino acids can be synthesized in the human body the others are considered essential amino acids just like with lipids earlier essential amino acids you need to take in uh with your diet peptide bonds hold amino acids together once again it's a dehydration synthesis an O on this part here called the amino group uh or sorry I I misspoke this is the amino group I saw the a here and thought differently this is uh they call it acid group here but I've actually seen this more in textbooks a carboxy group is the name for this so uh c2h you can abbreviated as that um that's the the carboxy group so an O on that and then if you look at the amino group over here that that makes water so when these two leave hey dehydration synthesis so now let me erase this and show you how the peptide bond forms it's going to be between the nitrogen of one amino acid and the carbon of the carboxy group of the next and vice versa so this carboxy group carbon is going to be linked to uh nitrogen of the neighboring amino acid and you can get an amino acid chain um made of what's called peptide bonds and amino acid chains are also called polypeptides for that reason it's just a bunch of peptide bonds stringing together amino acids so protein structure there's four basic levels of protein structure the primary structure is like I just mentioned a second ago amino acid chains just a stringing together of amino acids that's your most basic uh small little Protein that's what you're seeing here I know this is in Chinese but um this is a really long amino acid chain that is a primary structure and they're zooming into these four uh showing you what amino acids they are cysteine Serene Lucine phenyalanine um and then then there's a whatever other amino acids here so that's your primary structure secondary structure you saw some of them in the that previous uh image when you make bonds between the atoms that are on these amino acids and and make some kind of shape out of that amino acid chain um like that specific shape might be a helix that shape might be a beta pleated sheet um like pleat and pants uh it's the same concept um in terms of like kind of little folds that's how you get the secondary structures so uh you get a lot of different kinds of of shaped proteins um different protein functions by having different combinations of helices uh beta pleated sheets um sometimes these are called Alpha helices um the point is that bonds between the different parts of these um secondary structures is is how you get from primary to secondary then tertiary structures if I take a bunch of secondary structures and put them together and have them bonded in away and interacting in a way where it's now a bigger more functional protein that's how you get tertiary the third level so it's the interactions from the polypeptides and the surrounding fluid uh near it as well as our group so the specific amino acid chain within the secondary structure once you put them together that's going to impact your tertiary structure especially from a kind of Bond called disulfide bonds or disulfide Bridges uh so if we had these two attached to one another um and there was sulfur uh helping connect them that's how you would get um this disulfide bond between the secondary structures to make the tertiary structure and finally taking tertiary structures and putting them together you get a full-fledged protein uh by full-fledged protein I mean something like hemoglobin uh which is in red blood cells or something like catalase which is an enzyme in the liver so the quinary structure is how you get your completed protein with a certain shape matching uh whatever it's supposed to do whether it's a catalyzing reaction or a structural protein whatever all right we're done with protein so vitamins what are vitamins well um they're required as uh vital nutrients in limited amounts so in in your uh daily intake uh yeah carbs lipids proteins um Trace Amounts of vitamins are sometimes all that's required and some people will take a multivitamin uh daily some doctors will joke that you're just paying for expensive urine um and when it comes to the urinary system lessons you'll see more about that but the reason why they say that is these uh vitamins and I'm just listing a few of them if you have a well balanced diet um you're taking in enough vegetables and whole grains Etc you know different um protein sources as well you're going to get these vitamins in in reasonable amounts in your body and you may already be excreting some of them out via urine as waste so people who have a well balanced diet and are taking a multivitamin every day they don't necessarily need it um but if it helps you sleep at night then do it so when we look at vitamins uh in terms of their structure some of them are fat soluble meaning not water soluble and others are are polar meaning they do dissolve easily in water vitamin A um vitamin A U actually helps form epithelium in your body which is found in virtually every organ um and you've also heard about the eye thing like carrots is one source of adequate amounts of vitamin A um it's not going to give you your sight back like I need glasses my sight's not going to get better but in terms of keeping your retinal Health uh up there the retina is very important yes vitamin A is good for that um vitamin D um not just from diet you don't you know you're not going to get U milk as your only source of vitamin D or something like that you actually from getting enough sunlight from enough UV radiation hitting your skin will will make vitamin D um vitamin D helps you absorb calcium so it's it's for bone growth uh for maintenance of bone health as well as joints so without vitamin D you're not going to get enough calcium absorbed into your bloodstream um vitamin E um actually prevents the breakdown of vitamin A and certain fatty acids acids um vitamin E not always remembered as much as these two but important uh vitamin k um helps with clotting factors if you do not have enough vitamin K in your body you're talking some kind of uh blood disease uh potentially forming um so vitamin K need that uh water soluble B1 B2 B5 B6 B12 that's most of the B vitamins you get these mainly from uh meat and milk um some of them from bread like uh like B1 but um yeah meat a common source of these um not just meat but um you know let's say you're vegan um if you're vegan talk to your doctor about some other sources uh for these vitamins if you are completely excluding meat and eggs and so on and milk from your diet uh niin important folate important I I actually read that um folate um in in a woman who's pregnant early on even before she knows she's pregnant uh folate is extremely important for the the development of uh the embryo in terms of uh development of the spinal cord especially so low levels of folate early on in pregnancy makes it more likely a baby could be born with something like spinabifida uh niin without nasin you wouldn't be able to make NAD uh earlier on in this lesson we talked about NAD pluses and ADH without nasin you're not going to be able to make that and and it's a very important molecule in terms of aerobic respiration and finally vitamin C here's a picture of vitamin C um vitamin C you've heard about that uh vitamin C is uh just an important uh molecule um in terms of keeping many different tissues healthy it's also an antioxidant helps lower the risk of cancer over time um not enough vitamin C will give you scurvy you have heard about um Sailors or Pirates hundreds of years ago getting scurvy uh and so they would start keeping oranges on the ship to uh prevent that vitamin C deficiency from happening and then we look at minerals uh minerals are really tiny they're inorganic ions not organic uh released from electrolytes like U NAC uh table salt you're going to get sodium and chloride out of that those are minerals functions osmotic balance keeping the right amounts of water um in in in different parts of the body not getting too much on one side or too little on the other or or losing water or gaining water minerals are important for that osmotic balance tissue maintenance and use um something as simple as like nerve function uh without sodium and potassium you're not going to be able to uh have your neurons functioning properly uh cramps is just the beginning uh enzyme co-actors um some enzymes aren't going to work properly without minerals so examples I mean you've heard of these sodium potassium chloride calcium I iron zinc copper um if you do take a multivitamin you're going to find that that some of these things are going to be included um sweat is one way that these come out of the body not just through urine but uh sweating a lot uh is going to release some of these minerals or electrolytes and that's why you know people uh will sometimes drink those Sports beverages um which you also have sugar in them but um Sports beverages to to regenerate that um you know people who get like a muscle cramp they'll say eat a banana and the reason why is like yeah there's a high amount of pottassium in a banana and a muscle cramp may be due to just overuse of the muscle maybe due to sweating out some of those um those particular minerals and you want to replenish that uh to get back to uh normal so in terms of a balanced diet uh I could talk for a long time about this but I'm just going to highlight some main things uh when you look at a food guide pyramid you're going to see um different examples of them depending on what source but you're going to see grains is making up a lot of what what you should be taking in whole grains um from breads um plant products vegetables speaking of plant products vegetables and fruits um not only contain a lot of important vitamins and minerals and natural source of sugars but also fiber very important which we're going to discuss in the next slide Americans in general do not eat enough vegetables and fruits um a lot of people do but in general that's something that the average American diet is missing and Studies have shown time and time again that um a diet high in fruits and vegetables makes it less likely to develop cancer um you know keeping your tissues healthy antioxidants Etc uh Dairy um you know milk products um some people refuse to drink milk products or eat cheese um yogurt Etc but um da does provide um certain vitamins and minerals that are important there are other ways to to get that that uh and then meat and beans um you don't need meat I I know plenty of uh vegetarians and vegans who are healthy uh but uh meat is an easy way to get iron into your body uh to get essential amino acids in your body um but moderation is key not too much meat if if the amount of meat you're taking in exceeds grains and vegetables um constipation is one problem you're going to have uh but you're probably going to be malnourished in some way uh beans is a great source of protein as well well uh not as much protein as jam-packed in meat but um beans a good source of protein this is actually not your typical food guide pyramid this is a vegan uh food guide pyramid and if you look carefully you'll see that um there's no animal products involved um so this is a way that someone who is vegan could keep on top of it in terms of making sure they're getting uh the right amount of nutrients uh and vitamins and minerals oils you're always going to see um at the top in terms of the the least amount you should be having per day because it's just a a source of a lot of fat that you're going to get anyways from a lot of these um particular products so some people will make the mistake of having like a giant salad and and salad itself there's nothing wrong with it um fruits and vegetables Etc but a salad with a bunch of ranch dressing poured all over it uh that's a bad thing with a good thing ranch dressing has a lot of oils saturated fat I mean you're getting animal products um together to make that ranch dressing and so that's a source of oils where something like a salad actually might be less healthy than some other option uh using a a vinegret dressing or um you know vinegar oil combination dressing is going to be a lot lower in the saturated fats and and higher in unsaturated fats and finally nutrition facts uh people see these almost every day and sometimes don't think twice about it so I'm going to quickly go through what nutrition facts uh mean and and and kind of why they're important um so serving size all right if you look up at the top whatever package you're looking at here we've got macaroni and cheese uh serving size one cup uh you could Mass it to get 228 gram but just that you know that volume measurement one cup and there are two servings per container so if you consume the entire box of mac and cheese you've got to multiply all this by two some people forget that uh they look at the nutrition fact like oh it's only three grams of saturated fat no it's actually six cuz you ate the whole thing um I've seen this even on bags of chips little bags of chips where people they're going to eat the whole thing typically I've seen little bags of chips where it says two servings per bag and so it's it's it's kind of misleading the person they got to look carefully uh and they might have to actually double everything uh in terms of what's in there so serving size and servings per container important so all of these measurements have to do with consuming one serving uh calories so per serving this has 250 calories calories is is a way of measuring the amount of energy contained in it um the calories can come from fat they can come from sugar uh Etc so calories from fat almost half of the calories are from fat uh close to half um so that's important to consider too um there was a law passed in California recently that makes it where all the uh franchise restaurants have to put the amount of calories on the menu that's great I think that's that people can see that but what they don't have to tell you is the amount of fat calories so something may be um 100 calories like oh that's not much but it might be 70 calories from fat inside of there uh so it's important to to consider um what percentage of calories are actually coming from fat especially if you're trying to to lose weight or watch your weight um so when we look at fat uh the percent daily value basically means like hey if you're on a 2,000 calorie diet which is kind of average um the amount of calories you're taking in per day if you want to have the right amount of fat and cholesterol and carbohydrates you know by the end of the day pay attention to the percentages so if you have uh 12 grams of fat from this serving that's only 18% of what you're kind of allowed to have in terms of maintaining a healthy b balance so you still can go uh another 82% in terms of what's left um you don't typically see the percentage for protein uh you know protein needs really depend on um your activ in musculature in a sense but um when you look at fat cholesterol sodium carbohydrates they give you a guide here in terms of um the percentage in general they say hey 5% or less that's low so if you're looking for a a low fat kind of option um and you see 20 something 30% over here that's not a lowfat option because 20% or more is high for instance when you look at soup uh when the sodium levels in soup most cans of soup I've seen in the store uh you're looking looking at like 50 60 sometimes even greater percentage of the amount of sodium in the soup and they're using that sodium to to flavor it um but you got to watch your salt intake so fats when you look at fats in this yellow section um saturated and trans so the total fat 12 grams total fat that includes saturated trans unsaturated and there's different types of unsaturated fats there's polyunsaturated monounsaturated uh they're not listing uh those here um but I have seen on um different food products where they actually say hey here's the amount of monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fats uh so saturated fat uh it's only uh 25% of the total uh three out of 12 trans fats trans fats very unhealthy um some restaurants have decided to completely eliminate trans fats they've been linked to heart disease um you know a little bit now and then is is not a big deal um but if you are you know watching your your cholesterol levels um heart disease risk trans fats not good uh so there's three grams in this mac and cheese uh by the time you add all the stuff in um cholesterol so cholesterol is lipid uh that is a lipid uh molecule cholesterol levels um it's only hey it's only 10% of what you're allowed per day now if your cholesterol level is high like let's say your total number with with a blood panel and and your LDL is EXT extremely high um doctors might say hey you need to cut cholesterol cut the fried foods cut ranch dressing cut all those desserts those things that are really tasty because they're going to have cholesterol people like myself actually make cholesterol a little bit more in in in my liver than other people and that's a genetic thing from my mom's side um so I need to you know watch my cholesterol levels in terms of not going excessive and you know eating desserts after every meal uh but some people like my brother got a little more fortunate and he can eat a little bit more unhealthy than me and actually have the same cholesterol level because his liver is not cranking out as much as I am sodium uh specifically you know from Salt uh sodium 470 milligrams about 20% uh you're recommended to have around 2,000 milligrams or two grams per day uh some doctors even say that's a lot um it depends on the person if you have high blood pressure uh and you have physiological problems in terms of your health you want to limit your sodium because over time the more salt you you take in uh the more likely it is that your blood pressure is going to go up uh carbohydrates sugars so hey when we look at sugars there's 31 grams makes sense uh there's going to be carbs in that macaroni in terms of the pasta uh there's going to be carbs um in in in the milk in cheese Etc um so carbs 31 gram that's only about 10% of what you're recommended have per day so you can go 310 grams um Atkin diet would be one of those diets where you're not supposed to have carbs U that's not a healthy opt option for everybody um so I would talk to your doctor first before going on a no carb diet uh that's an option for some people to uh lose weight uh easier uh but for most people having some carbs in your body every day is is a good thing but moderation of course dietary fiber that's a kind of carbohydrate that we don't actually digest and absorb um it comes from typically cellulose so cellulose is in plant cell walls so when you eat something like celery you know vegetation um it's like Drano for your intestines uh because you're not absorbing all that stuff it's it's kind of sliding through um and and it's good in terms of keeping you regular uh with trips to the bathroom number two people who don't have enough fiber in their diet are going to get hard stools uh and more likely to get constipation so fiber is good in terms of maintaining intestinal Health uh and then sugars these are those digestible sugars um you notice there's 31 gram of carbohydrates atates um sugars here might be just simply glucose but um you can see there's 31 total grams of sugars and then protein five grams I mean protein is very important in your diet uh of course because not only you know for maintaining muscle mass but you make so many molecules from proteins in your body and and those amino acids you don't want to get low on those uh you can see of course that at the bottom there's there's vitamins and depending on what vitamins are in there um they'll list those um notice there's no vitamin K listed here no vitamin E listed here and that's because this dish is not a significant source of those vitamins and you can see that they adjust here in terms of like if your total calorie intake is actually 2500 well then since your total calorie intake is more then you can take in more grams of all these different organic nutrients if you go 3,000 of course you're going to be able to take in more but it depends on your level of activity and your health somebody who's an Olympic Athlete if they're working out 6 hours a day or more then maybe a 12,000 calorie diet is appropriate for them in terms of their metabolic needs but for someone like me who's who's non Olympic Athlete I think 2500 would be good enough so thank you for watching educator.com