Atlantic Revolutions-a series of late 18th- and early 19th-century uprisings in the Americas and Europe that promoted democracy, liberty, and human rights by challenging monarchies and colonial rule.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen-The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen was a foundational document of the French Revolution, adopted in 1789. It was heavily influenced by Enlightenment principles and the American Revolution. The document proclaimed that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights" and emphasized key ideals such as liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. It marked a significant step toward modern democracy and inspired human rights movements around the world.
Guilitonie-The guillotine became a symbol of the French Revolution, particularly during the period known as the Reign of Terror (1793–1794). It was designed as a quick and supposedly humane method of execution. Thousands were beheaded, including nobles, clergy, and revolutionaries. The guillotine represented both the revolutionary push for equality and the period’s extreme violence. Famous victims included King Louis XVI, Queen Marie Antoinette, and radical leader Maximilien Robespierre.
Louis XVI-Louis XVI, the king of France, was facing a growing revolution in his own country. His failure to address France’s financial crisis and his resistance to reform led to his arrest, trial for treason, and execution by guillotine in 1793, marking the fall of the French monarchy. Louis XVI didn’t personally kill people, but as king, he approved the use of force to control protests and uprisings, which led to the death of many citizens. He also allowed harsh punishments and supported a system that used violence to protect royal power, such as sending troops against crowds during early revolutionary unrest.
Napoleon- Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power. A skilled military leader, he became Emperor of France and attempted to restore French control over Saint-Domingue. However, his forces were defeated by the Haitian revolutionaries, and in 1804, Haiti declared its independence, becoming the first free Black republic in the world. These events were deeply connected by the Atlantic Revolutions and the global struggle for freedom, equality, and power.
Haitian Revolution-The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was the first successful slave revolt in history and led to the creation of the independent nation of Haiti. It was inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution and occurred in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, the richest colony in the Caribbean due to its sugar plantations. Enslaved Africans, led by figures like Toussaint Louverture, fought against French, Spanish, and British forces. After years of brutal conflict, Haiti declared independence in 1804, becoming the first Black republic and the second independent nation in the Americas.
Saint Domingue-Saint-Domingue was a French colony in the Caribbean and the richest in the world during the 18th century, known for its vast sugar and coffee plantations worked by enslaved Africans. Harsh conditions and the influence of revolutionary ideas from France led to a massive slave revolt in 1791, which became the Haitian Revolution.
Industrial Revolution-a period of rapid industrial growth and technological change, beginning in the late 1700s, when machines and factories transformed how goods were produced and how people lived and worked.
Cottage Industry-Before factories, many people worked from home in the cottage industry, producing goods like textiles by hand or with simple tools. Families spun thread and wove cloth in their own homes, but this system was slow and inefficient. The Industrial Revolution later replaced this with factory-based production, increasing output and transforming work.
Causes of Industrial Revolution (why did it start in Great Britain)-The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain due to several key factors: abundant natural resources like coal and iron, a growing population providing labor, political stability, a strong banking system, and a vast colonial empire that supplied raw materials and markets. Additionally, Britain had a culture that encouraged innovation and private investment, which helped inventions like the steam engine revolutionize industry.
Urbanization-Urbanization refers to the rapid growth of cities as people moved from rural areas to work in factories. During the Industrial Revolution, towns and cities expanded quickly but often without proper planning, leading to overcrowded housing, poor sanitation, and unhealthy living conditions for many workers and their families.
Factory System-The factory system centralized production in large buildings where workers and machines operated under one roof. This system allowed for mass production, increased efficiency, and lowered costs, but it also created strict schedules and repetitive work, dramatically changing how people worked compared to the flexible cottage industry.
Factory Conditions-Factory conditions during the Industrial Revolution were often harsh and unsafe. Workers, including women and children, faced long hours (sometimes 12-16 hours a day), low wages, poor ventilation, dangerous machinery, and little job security. These conditions eventually led to calls for labor reforms.
Child Labor-Children were widely employed in factories because they could be paid less and could fit into small spaces to operate or fix machines. However, child labor was brutal, with long hours, minimal breaks, and hazardous environments, causing injuries and health problems. Public outrage eventually led to laws restricting child labor.
Capitalism-Capitalism is an economic system where private individuals own businesses and property, and the production of goods is guided by profit motives in a free market. The Industrial Revolution greatly expanded capitalism, encouraging investment and competition but also leading to wealth inequality and poor working conditions.
Adam Smith-Adam Smith was an 18th-century economist known as the “father of capitalism.” In his book The Wealth of Nations, he argued that free markets, guided by the “invisible hand” of supply and demand, would naturally regulate themselves and promote prosperity, encouraging minimal government interference.
Communism-Communism is a political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where all property and means of production are owned communally. It arose as a reaction against the inequalities of capitalism, aiming to eliminate private ownership to ensure equality and fair distribution of wealth.
Karl Marx-Karl Marx was a 19th-century philosopher and economist who co-wrote The Communist Manifesto. He criticized capitalism for exploiting workers and predicted that the working class would eventually overthrow the capitalist system to create a communist society based on equality.
Socialism-Socialism is an economic system where the government or community owns and controls major industries and resources to promote social welfare and reduce inequality. It seeks to balance the benefits of capitalism with protections for workers and the poor, often through public services and regulations.
Motivations for Imperialism- Imperialism is when a country takes control over another place, usually to gain power, land, or resources.
Cultural - Some countries believed their living style was better than others. They thought they were "helping" by spreading their culture to other countries. This often led to forcing people to change their traditions.
Example: European countries spread Christianity and their languages to places in Africa and Asia.
Economic-Countries wanted to gain wealth by taking over places rich in natural resources like gold, cotton, rubber, and spices. They wanted new markets to sell their products. They could make more money and grow their economies.
Example: Britain took control of India to get their spices, tea, and cotton.
Balance of power-If one country took over a lot of land, others didn’t want to be left behind. Countries would expand their empires to keep up with their rivals, making sure no one got too powerful.
Example: When Britain took parts of Africa, France and Germany, they also wanted land so they wouldn’t fall behind on their level of power.
Nationalism-Nationalism means strong pride in one's country. Countries wanted to prove they were the best by having the strongest empire. If they had more land, it meant more power and respect.
Example: Many European countries raced to take over land in Africa to show their strength.
Social Darwinism-Social Darwinism is a belief that applies Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection—“survival of the fittest”—to human societies. It was used in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to justify imperialism, racism, and inequality by claiming that some races or nations were naturally superior and destined to dominate others. This idea supported European powers’ domination over weaker peoples and was often used to legitimize harsh treatment and exploitation.
Berlin Conference-The Berlin Conference was a meeting where European powers divided Africa into territories to avoid conflict over land claims during the “Scramble for Africa.” No African leaders were invited, and the borders were drawn without regard to ethnic or cultural groups. This caused long-lasting problems, including conflicts and divisions within African societies that persist today.
King Leopold-King Leopold II was the King of Belgium in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, best known for his brutal exploitation of the Congo Free State, which he privately controlled. Under his rule, the Congo was subjected to extreme violence, forced labor, and widespread abuse as Leopold’s agents extracted rubber and other resources to enrich him personally. Millions of Congolese people suffered from harsh working conditions, mutilations, and death. International outrage eventually forced Leopold to give up control of the Congo to the Belgian government, but the damage to the people and land had already been immense.
Consequences of Imperialism-The consequences of imperialism were far-reaching and complex, affecting both the colonizers and the colonized. For the colonized regions, imperialism often meant loss of land, resources, and political control as European powers dominated local governments and economies. Traditional cultures and social structures were disrupted or destroyed, and many people were forced into harsh labor systems. While some infrastructure like roads and schools were introduced, these changes mainly served colonial interests. Imperialism also sparked resistance and conflict, leading to long-term political instability and economic challenges that many former colonies still face today.
Imperialism in India-the control and exploitation of India by the British Empire, primarily through the British East India Company and later direct British rule, which reshaped India’s economy, society, and government.
British East India Company-The British East India Company was a powerful trading company that played a major role in establishing British control over India. Originally focused on trade, it gradually took on political and military power, ruling large parts of India by the 18th and 19th centuries. The company controlled resources, collected taxes, and maintained its own army, which led to significant economic and social changes in India before the British government took direct control after 1858.
Sepoy Mutiny-The Sepoy Mutiny was a widespread but ultimately unsuccessful rebellion by Indian soldiers (sepoys) employed by the British East India Company. The revolt began partly due to cultural and religious insensitivity—such as the use of animal fat on rifle cartridges offensive to Hindu and Muslim beliefs—and broader anger over British policies. The rebellion led to brutal fighting and reprisals, and as a result, the British government ended company rule and took direct control of India, starting the British Raj.
Imperialism in Japan-Unlike many Asian countries, Japan avoided colonization by quickly modernizing and strengthening its military during the late 19th century. After centuries of isolation, Japan opened up to Western influence and rapidly industrialized, becoming an imperial power itself. It began expanding its influence in East Asia, notably winning wars against China and Russia, showing that imperialism was not just a Western practice but could be adopted by non-Western nations.
Meiji Restoration-The Meiji Restoration was a turning point in Japanese history. It marked the end of the military government that had ruled Japan for over 250 years, and the restoration of power to the Emperor. The Meiji Restoration led to rapid modernization and industrialization in Japan, transforming it from a feudal society into a modern world power.
Matthew Perry-Matthew Perry was a soldier who opened Japan to trade with the Western world. Before Perry arrived, Japan had been isolated for a while, meaning it did not trade with most other countries. Perry’s arrival changed that and forced Japan to start interacting and trading around the world.
Imperialism in China-During the 19th century, China faced increasing pressure and control from Western powers and Japan through imperialism. Foreign nations forced China to open its ports to trade, exploit its resources, and accept unequal treaties that favored Western interests. This weakened the Qing Dynasty, caused social unrest, and undermined China’s sovereignty, setting the stage for major conflicts and internal rebellions.
Opium Wars-The Opium Wars were two wars that happened in the 1800s between China and Britain). These wars were mainly fought over a drug called opium, which caused big problems in China. Britain tried to take the opium.
Boxer Rebellion-The Boxer Rebellion was an uprising against foreigners that occurred in China.. A Chinese secret society known as the Boxers embarked on a violent campaign to drive all foreigners from China. Several countries sent troops to halt the attacks. The Foresigners vs Boxers.
Causes of World War I
Militarism-Militarism is the policy of glorifying military power and maintaining a strong, prepared armed force even during peacetime. Prior to World War I, European nations significantly expanded their armies and navies, particularly Germany and Britain, which engaged in a naval arms race. This buildup fostered a culture that viewed war as not only inevitable but noble and necessary. Military leaders gained political influence, and war strategies such as Germany’s Schlieffen Plan were carefully developed. Militarism made nations more willing to resort to war, believing that their powerful armies would quickly secure victory
Nationalism-Nationalism is a sense of pride and loyalty to one’s nation or ethnic group. In the years leading up to World War I, nationalism surged throughout Europe. It united people within powerful nation-states like Germany and France, while also causing significant unrest in multi-ethnic empires such as Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. In the Balkans, Serbian groups, especially the Serbs, wanted independence from Austrian control, which contributed to tensions in the region. This intense national pride, combined with ethnic rivalries, created a volatile environment that helped ignite the war.
Alliances-Alliances are formal agreements between countries to provide military or political support in case of conflict. Before World War I, European powers formed a tangled web of alliances meant to deter aggression and maintain a balance of power. However, these alliances ultimately ensured that any regional conflict would quickly involve multiple nations. When Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia stepped in to protect Serbia, and Germany then declared war on Russia. This chain reaction, driven by alliance obligations, turned a localized incident into a full-blown world war.
Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand-The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, occurred on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia, a region under Austro-Hungarian control but with strong Serbian nationalist sentiments. Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, were killed by Gavrilo Princip, a young Bosnian Serb nationalist and member of the secret society called the Black Hand, which aimed to unite Slavic peoples and free them from Austro-Hungarian rule. The assassination was seen as a direct attack on Austria-Hungary’s authority, prompting the empire to issue an ultimatum to Serbia. When Serbia’s response failed to satisfy Austria-Hungary, the empire declared war, activating a web of alliances across Europe that quickly escalated into World War I.
Consequences of World War I-World War I caused widespread destruction and loss of life, leading to the collapse of empires like Austro-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Versailles punished Germany harshly, creating economic problems and resentment that contributed to World War II. The war also changed society, with women entering the workforce and new countries forming from former empires. Additionally, it shifted global power, making the United States a major world player and setting the stage for political tensions in the years to come.
Russian Revolution-The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a major political upheaval that ended centuries of tsarist rule and led to the rise of the Soviet Union. It began with widespread dissatisfaction due to poor working conditions, food shortages, and Russia’s involvement in World War I. The revolution included two key events: the February Revolution, which forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, and the October Revolution, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power and established a communist government. This drastically changed Russia’s political system and inspired communist movements worldwide.
Decolonization-Decolonization refers to the process after World War II when many countries in Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean gained independence from European colonial powers. Fueled by nationalist movements, weakened European countries, and international pressure, former colonies fought for and won self-rule. Decolonization dramatically reshaped global politics, ending centuries of imperial control and creating new nations, but it also often led to political instability, conflicts, and challenges in nation-building.
Independence in India-gained independence from British rule in 1947 after a long struggle led by leaders like Mahatma Gandhi using nonviolent resistance.
Gandhi-Mahatma Gandhi was a key leader in India’s struggle for independence from British rule. He inspired millions of Indians to fight for freedom and equality through peaceful protests, marches, and boycotts. His leadership helped unite the country and brought international attention to India’s cause, ultimately leading to independence in 1947. Gandhi’s impact extended beyond India, influencing movements for justice and human rights around the world.
Jawaharlal Nehru-Jawaharlal Nehru was a central figure in India’s struggle for independence and became the country’s first Prime Minister after independence in 1947. A close ally of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a leader of the Indian National Congress and helped shape modern India through his vision of a secular, democratic, and industrialized nation. He focused on building strong institutions, promoting education, and encouraging economic development. Nehru’s leadership laid the foundation for India’s political and social progress in the years following independence.
Partition of India-The Partition of India in 1947 was the division of British India into two independent countries, India and Pakistan, based largely on religious lines—Hindus in India and Muslims in Pakistan. This division led to massive population movements, with millions of people migrating across the new borders to join their chosen nation. The partition caused widespread violence, displacement, and loss of life, as communities that had lived together for centuries were suddenly divided. The effects of Partition have had lasting impacts on the political and social relations between India and Pakistan.
South Africa
Apartheid-Apartheid was a system of legalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa from 1948 to the early 1990s. It enforced strict laws that separated people based on race, severely limiting the rights and freedoms of Black South Africans and other non-white groups. Under apartheid, non-white citizens faced restrictions on where they could live, work, and attend school, leading to widespread inequality and resistance movements that eventually helped end the system.
Afrikaaners-Afrikaners are descendants of Dutch settlers who came to South Africa in the 17th century and speak the Afrikaans language. They became a dominant political and economic group in South Africa, especially during the 20th century. Afrikaners were the main supporters and enforcers of apartheid, creating policies to maintain their control over the country and separate racial groups. Their influence shaped much of South Africa’s history during this period.
Nelson Mandela-Nelson Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary and political leader who became the first Black president of South Africa in 1994. He dedicated his life to fighting against the racial segregation and oppression of apartheid through activism and leadership in the African National Congress (ANC). Mandela was imprisoned for 27 years because of his efforts to end apartheid but became a global symbol of resistance and reconciliation. After his release, he worked to peacefully dismantle apartheid, promote racial equality, and unite South Africa, earning worldwide respect for his commitment to justice and human rights.
Rwanda-experienced a deadly genocide in 1994, where ethnic conflict between the Hutu and Tutsi groups led to the mass killing of hundreds of thousands of people.
Genocide definition-Genocide is the deliberate and systematic killing of a large group of people, especially those of a particular ethnic, religious, or national group.
Hutu-The Hutu are an ethnic group in Rwanda and Burundi who were the majority population. Historically, tensions between the Hutu and the Tutsi minority have led to conflict, including the 1994 Rwandan genocide where extremist Hutu groups targeted Tutsi people.
Tutsi-The Tutsi are a smaller ethnic group in Rwanda and Burundi who traditionally held more social and political power. During the Rwandan genocide in 1994, they were the primary victims, targeted by Hutu extremists in a mass killing.
Stages of Genocide-The stages of genocide describe the process through which genocide develops, usually starting with classification (dividing people into groups), symbolization, discrimination, dehumanization, organization, polarization, preparation, persecution, extermination (mass killing), and finally denial. Understanding these stages helps identify and prevent genocide before it happens.