All right. So after we have spent time to discuss about attention and the processes uh cognitive processes related to attention, now we have to continue with short-term memory. And then uh in the next meeting we will also talk about um another part of this short-term memory which is not another part the like the continuation theory of this short-term memory that is called as working memory but for today we will focus on short-term memory. So uh when we are talking about when we're thinking about short-term memory that means um that means we are uh questioning about what do you remember? What do people remember? Okay, more people were joining. Sorry. All right. And when we are thinking about what do people remember then we have to understand about the concepts of first STM and the second is LTM. So, LTM stands for long-term memory and uh on the book you can find uh the topic for today on chapter five in chapter 5 and then for long-term uh memory it will be in chapters 6, 7 and 8. So don't forget to read those chapters before um our meetings. So what is memory? Memory is defined as the process involved in retaining, retrieving and using information about stimuli about images, events, ideas and skills after the original information is no longer present. So as long as the original information is no longer present and we want to know what can we retain can can we retrieve and use from those information that means we're talking about memory. So memory is almost like a time machine. uh it's uh it's a machine or not a machine it's a process that allows us to go back to the information that we have retained uh in order to retrieve them and use them um when we need it. All right. And in order to understand why memory is important, maybe you want to watch a video that I have posted on a must do about Clive Wearing's case. So he is someone who has lost his ability to uh memorize things, different things like everything basically. Um and and because of that he could not function properly. Well, we can talk about this more in the next meeting. But hopefully you will spend time or allocate your time to watch the videos first. All right. And the oldest memory um oldest model of memory uh was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrids in 1968. So basically this is their model. It's sort of like a simplified model. Um basically they propose that there would be three um three kinds of memory stoages. The first storage is called as sensory memory. Um and then there will be the second storage called short-term memory and then there will be third one called as long-term memory. So uh all of these memories are interrelated to each other. They work together. For example, when we receive a stimulation, sensory stimulation like maybe a visual image or um a sound or a touch. um they will be received first of all at the sensory memory and then because we're paying attention to one aspect or just to the to a certain kinds of stimulus let's say a visual stimulus then the stimulus can be uh transferred from sensory memory to short-term memory and then uh in order to um to transfer uh the information that we have um retained in the short-term memory to the long-term memory we have to do certain uh process called as control process and this is also well known as rehearsal here rehearsal. So rehearsal is a control process that enable us to transfer any information that we have got in our short-term memory and transfer them to the long-term memory. Um otherwise maybe in some occasion um when we have received information uh and and process them in sensory memory and paying attention and get them transferred into the short-term memory perhaps in some occasion we have to use those information immediately and so we can get an output immediate output. How? Nevertheless, in most occasions, we don't have necessarily to use them. We we have to uh retain them first in the long-term memory. So, in order to get an an accurate output, in order to uh remember this information accurately later in in time, then we need to use this control process or rehearsal. So they will be stored in the long-term memory and then when we need them we can retrieve them. When we retrieve this the information um it's indicated by the black arrow then we actually retrieve them from the long-term memory to the short-term memory and then we use them. That means we get an output of what we remember about the information. So why why is it called uh as the model model of memory? This is because it contains features of many of the memory models proposed in the 1960s. So before this model was uh proposed by Atkinson and Shiffron, there were so many models of memory proposed by other researchers and basically these two researchers that tried to combine or find like a middle way that um that their model can encompass all kinds of models proposed previously. So uh the model model of memory consists of various characteristics of memory models and the structural features. So structural features of the model include sensory memory which will um which will act in the initial stage. It holds all incoming information for uh seconds or fractions of second. And then there will be also uh another feature called as short-term memory which holds information of five to seven items for about 15 to 20 seconds. So much longer than the sensory memory. And the long-term memory uh it can hold a large amount of information for years or even decades. So each of this uh structural feature has their own duration durability you can say and um we can also see that they have specific capacity. So the capacity of sensory memory and long-term memory for example it's like indefinite like they can um they can capture so much information but the capacity of short-term memory is very limited. It's only uh able to hold uh five to seven items or maybe about nine items at the most. And uh the durability also differs because the shortest durability or duration would be for sensory memory because it will take uh it can only retain the information for about seconds or fractions of a second. Short-term memory is in the middle and then long-term memory is like the longest. All right. And we have talked about a little about rehearsal or control process. So let's delve more into that. Control process is a dynamic process. It's dynamic processes associated with the structural features that can be controlled by the person and may differ from one task to another. So for example is rehearsal. Rehearsal means when we are repeating a stimulus over and over. So let's say you have to uh you have to call um someone using um certain phone number then you will look it up on uh on the yellow pages or on the internet. Then you've got the the phone number, but then you don't have anything to write it on. So you have to repeat the phone number over and over in order to be able to use it maybe in 15 or 20 seconds seconds later or even a bit longer. let's say 15 minutes later, but because you have rehearsed it over and over and over, so you can still use it like more than 20 seconds later because it will this rehearsal process will keep the information present in your short-term memory. And uh another control process is strategies that you might use to help make a stimulus more memorable. any strategies can be used. Uh it depends on our creativity on our experiences. The strategies of attention can also be a kind of control process and um as long as this tentional strategy can help you to focus on information that is particularly important or interesting. The components of memory do not act in isolation but they are supported by sensory or modality systems and sensory memory is a form of storage or memory. Well, we have talked about this. Okay. So, I hope uh everything is still clear until now. Let's see this example. So let's say let's say someone uh this woman uh we can see that she's watching on a screen some information on the screen. So all information on the screen will enter her sensory memory at first and then he's go she's going to pay attention to a stimulus that is relevant or interesting for her. In this case, let's say he was in she was instructed to look for phone number of uh an office because she would have to call the office and so that will be the relevant information that she's looking for. So she will pay attention only on that information and she found it. So she focused on this specific number that is the number of the office that she's have to she has to uh call 5551000 and because of this control uh not control process because of this attention then it will enter her STM. Okay. So all other information from the screen that enters the sensory memory where are where are they? They will decay. They just vanish. Why? Because we ignore them because they're not important for us. But the stimula that got our attention will be transferred to SDN. And then uh because she would have to call the phone number then she has to do uh one of the control processes that is rehearsal. So she's rehearsing the phone number over and over until uh in in a way that that information will stay in the STM longer than the duration the natural duration of the STM itself. And um while it was still in the SDM, she will make the phone call and she will still remember the number which is making the phone call. But then uh because of this control process, not only she will be able to call the phone number, but also the phone number will be transferred towards the LTM. Yeah. And because it's already transferred to the LTM, sorry, some more people are joining. And because the phone number, the stimulus already transferred to the LTM, so she can memorize the the phone number again, right? Okay. And then when uh next time she also had to call the phone number the same phone number she can still retrieve the phone number from the LTM. So the phone number the representation the mental representation of the phone number in the LTM will go back to the STM and will be remembered accurately hopefully. So basically when we are retrieving information that we have already stored in the LTM we are bringing it back to awareness. Awareness is one feature of STM. SDM is a storage where all remember all information that we retain there we are aware of. So uh in this case when we're talking about this Atkinson and shiver processes we need to also understand about encoding. So encoding is the specific term that psychologists use to divine um uh to refer to the process of storing information in the long-term memory. So when we have got our uh information the important information in our short-term memory in the first place but not yet in the long-term memory that means we are encoding that and when the information is already gone through uh this control processes like rehearsal and so it can be transferred to the long-term memory we are retrieving that So this is also called as retrieval. A specific term of the process of remembering information that's stored in the long-term memory. All right. Any question about this so far? question. I have a question. So, um, is there a way for us to train our brain like those memory championships? Is there is there a way that we can expand our short-term memory? Like for example, I think I've seen on a show uh there's this kid recalling an order of a shuffled deck of cards after looking at it once. Is there a possibility that we can also train ourselves to do the same? Yeah, for sure. But it takes a lot of time and a lot of uh strong will. So um all of these tasks a memory task included um it requires familiarity and expertise. So the more familiar you are with um the stimulus or or the stimuli the kinds of stimula that you have to remember for example different kinds of cards the the easier you are uh in order to get strategies for the control processes that will help you to retain those information especially in the shortterm memory. I don't know if that person can still be able to retrieve or or to transfer those um those cards that he had to uh report immediately. Can he still transfer it to the long-term memory? I don't know. But maybe, yeah, it's possible. Can he still retrieve it after like a day? I don't know. But if it's the longterm uh the short-term memory, yes. But uh it takes a lot of time, a lot of um experiences to find specific um control processes. All right. Thank you, M. Y. All right. Let's continue now. Um we will talk a little bit more about sensory memory. So what it what is it? It is the retention of the effects of sensory stimulation for brief periods of time. So every day, every time since we woke up, um we have got this sensory stimulation and so much of them uh stimulate our um sensory systems and basically we we've received so much information on our in our sensory memory. So they can be in various modalities. For example, the five senses that we've got, we got um sounds maybe. So we hear, we heard uh so much sounds when we uh wake up in this morning and they will be first of all stored in what is called as echoic memory. It's a kind of specific sensory memory for uh auditory stimulus. And then if we got um if if our um what is it skins touch something uh for example your bed or your parents uh body some or something like that that will first of all in uh received in our haptic memory and if it's like sort of like a taste then it will be stored in our gustatory memory. If it's visual uh images then we it will be stored in iconic memory and if it's like smell will be stored in all factory memory. So all kinds of modality modalities have their own sensory memory systems. Uh okay. Um actually maybe in our life we have seen phenomen uh many phenomena like this. Uh we have seen people playing with fireworks and then they will create sort of like um illusion, visual illusion or optical illusion that makes us feel like we're looking at a circle and a circle sort of like created from this um fireworks um that is moved by by the holder. Or we feel like we we are seeing a perceptual trail like a trail of light and this is due to the work of our sensory memory especially in the uh I'm trying to go back especially the uh visual sensory memory. So the sparkler trail and the um projector shelter it's actually a trail of light that is a creation of memory um and it leaves a memory trace of the perception of light for a fraction of second and because they are leaving a trace memory traces even though it's only for a fraction of seconds it feels it makes us feel like there's a continuation of this perceptual trail. This retention of the perception of light in your mind is called as the persistence of vision. All right. And uh the first person who tried to understand about the work or the capacity of and duration of sensory memory is uh Sperling. Sperling is a German psychologist and experimental cognitive psychologist who is really uh smart. Yeah. So what he did in his lab is he asked the participants to uh just sit in front of a computer screen and then he will present them with this stimulus. So every trial will consist of this 12 stimula a vu vertically a M w K horizontally and then there will be a second row and then the third row. So the 12 letters are flashed. They are not presented like for a long time but they are flashed on the screen for only 50 millisecond. So you can imagine how fast it is and then after they are flashed for 50 millisecond then the screen will go blank. So the participant will not see anything except for a black blank screen and then the participants will be uh asked to report what they've seen in the first experiment. But of course it's going to be very hard right to report all the 12 stimula if it's if many of them are just presented for 50 millisecond. I think uh sparling has like hundreds of trials and for every trial it's just the same consist it will consist of 12 stimula flashed for only about uh 12 uh 50 millisecond and because um afterwards the participant will have to uh report what they see it's very hard for them so they could just uh report very little amount of information. But then Sparling uh because he's very smart, he he wanted to know better if it's really that um the participants uh actually really got all these informations in their sensory memory or not. So in the second experiment, he would still do the same. he would uh present uh for every trial he would present the participant with this 12 stimula and then flash them for 50 millisecond and then the screen will go blank. But now participants in the beginning of the second experiment will be told that they would also hear a tone. There will be three kinds of tone. They would hear one of them for every trial. Either like that maybe or or so there are three kinds of tones. Uh first tone will be uh high tone, second tone will be middle tone and then uh the third one will be the low tone. One of them will be presented after every stimuli. And when they hear uh for example the middle tone then they would have to report only stimuli that were presented in the middle row. If they hear a high tone then they will have uh to then they will have to uh report stimuli that they saw in the first row. Hello Okay. And if they hear the middle term then they would uh have to report stimulate that they have seen in the uh low uh in the third row. So every row will be associated to a toad. This is already been uh this has already been instructed in the beginning of the second experiment. So the second experiment is to really understand whether all these 12 stimula actually already got uh into their participant sensory memory. So in this case um the participant heard a middle tone that means they would have to report what they have seen in the second row and the tone will be sounded within 250 milliseconds of the flash as a signal to recall letters from one of the rows. And uh when this kind of uh instruction was uh was delivered, the participants apparently showed a much better performance. They could still report three out of four letters from every row. This is a really big difference and this suggests that at least our sensory memory has so big capacity that it can encode all of this uh information uh even though they are just presented for 50 millisecond. So with these two experiments were able to answer the question that he proposed in the beginning of the study. how much information people can take in uh can take in from briefly presented stimuli. This means that he wants to know what is the capacity our of our sensory memory. So I have told you about the two experiments. The first experiment is when the experiment uh did not involve any tone and the and the second experiment is called as partial report method when the procedure involve um tones. So the first experiment is called as whole report method. Participants were asked to report as many letters as possible from the entire 12let display. Remember there will be no tone involved. And because of this whole report method in the first experiment, they were only able to report an average of four out uh 4.5 out of the 12 letters. Which means they could only remember from their sensory memory. I could only remember 37.5% of the whole uh of the entire stimuli and remember this is repeated uh across hundreds of trials. So it is really uh consistent. And in the second experiment that is the partial report method, participants were asked to report the letters in a specific row of the displayed matrix. They got high pitch tone top uh which is associated with reporting what they have seen in the top row, medium pitch tone which will be associated with what they have seen in the middle row and low pitch tone associated with what they have seen in the bottom row. And within this procedure they could correctly reported an average of about 3.5 or 3.3 out of the four letters that they had to report. That means actually their sensory memory captured a lot more information than we than we suspected. which means they could retain at least 82% uh of the whole stimuli in their sensory memory in um because it's just about one of the rows but you know if they could not guess which row that they will get or which stone that they will be presented. So this is uh this means actually our sensoring memory could get uh could take in like 82% of the information. So the whole report uh is uh what will be called as tone uh sorry as uh first experiment that is in the a uh picture here. They would see all the entire 12 stimula for 50 millisecond and then report them immediately. And then in the second experiment it is called as partial report where the tone is uh presented immediately after the presentation of the stimuli. Um so and then they would have to report only the row associated to that specific tone. And this resulted in uh 3.3 letters reported out of four. And actually there will be a third experiment as well. It is called as partial report as well using partial report um method. But this time the tone will be delayed. Now this third experiment which will be more difficult of course compared to the second and the first experiment because they will have to really uh retain all informations uh and then they would hear the tone one of the tones and then they will have to record. Now because this third experiment um the delay procedure it is more difficult then they could only uh report on average one letter out of four which means 75% uh of the stimula that they had to report and this is after 1 second delay. Yeah. If the tone was presented one second uh after the presentation of this thingy still the second experiment is um and the third experiment still uh results resulted in a better performance compared to the first experiment even though it sounds more difficult. So, so far is there any question about Sperling's experiment? Yes, Mary. Uh, okay. So, but in on page 15, uh, you mentioned about partial report method and, um, I was wondering if is this the same as photographic memory in a way like is that the way that we can train our photographic memory by recalling something in a specific order? Yeah. Uh yeah, it could be related to that because they're using visual stimuli but actually um it's not just visual. Uh it's also yeah it's visual. I think it's more visual stimula and yes it can be related to that specific uh pictographic memory. Yeah. So um is that is that what you asked? Yeah, cuz um I think I've seen I've seen on Google they would put two different photos of um is it like blue dots and red dots and if you have photographic memory you can sort of like remember where those blue or red dots are. So maybe if we memorize like the line the specific line we can train ourself to have photographic memory. You could be well basically uh it's different compared to that I guess. Uh remember that Sperling across those three experiments he consistently um presented the the trial for every trial only for 50 millisecond. Very short. Yeah. And because of this really brief presentation it suggests that what he was looking for is the capacity of sensory memory. So not short-term memory uh like what I suspected from your examples for short-term memory the procedure will be different. All right. So this is specifically just our senses are yes because of the very brief presentation. 50 millisecond mill not 50 second 50 millcond. Yeah very sure. All right. Thank you. Yeah. So 1,000 millisecond equals to 1 second. And we're talking about a presentation of 50 millisecond. That means like I don't know really really brief. Okay. So the procedure of a memory task will define which memory stoages that you're aiming for. And these kinds of experiment uh is really common in um psychology nowadays. Well, maybe not in Indonesia because cognitive psychology is not uh developed well here. Not even not. Yeah, there's no cognitive psychology department here. But uh basically this is a very common procedure where the experimental procedure will be uh will define which uh memory stoages of those classical Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory uh suggest when the stimula was presented for only 50 milliseconds that means you are uh trying to measure the capacity of the and the duration of the sensory memory. But if the stimula is uh presented for about 15 to 20 seconds, that might be short short-term memory. If it's if the stimula is presented uh for much longer, maybe even longer than 5 minutes, then it's uh going to be uh long-term memory. So it's also depends on that is just even one example there are so many variations but basically sensory memory will involve specific uh procedure presentation procedure usually short-term memory as well and long-term memory as well. So please uh remember that good question Mary thank you. So um you so this is uh a graphic that shows the results of um spedlings experiment um in the two experime um in the third experiment in comparison to um the first experiment. So the third experiment where the where the stimula uh is presented within 50 milliseconds and then there will be a delay for 1 second uh well the the the delay time will be varied. Yeah the delay time will be varied from immediately to um to 1 second. So in the horizontal line here you can see the length of delay time delay of uh the tone presentation after the stimula was presented. So some tones in some trials the tones will be presented zero delay time after the stimula was presented. That means a stimula was presented 50 millisecond and then boom tones. Um but in other times the tone will be presented like maybe um one uh sorry uh 0.1 uh 100 millisecond 100 millisecond after the stimula. then 200 millisecond and then 300 millisecond all the way to 1,000 millisecond. Yeah. So uh all of this uh uh will increase the difficulty of course of the uh report of the memory. And then on the uh far right uh um square you can see here is the result the average um the average amount of stimula that participant can report for the whole report task. So let's look at the vertical lines. The vertical lines here refers to the percentage of letters available to participants. That means the amount of letters in percentage that the participants can report. So in the partial report task when the participant had to report uh the stimula based on the tone that is uh presented zero delay. So immediately after the presentation they can report more than 75% of the stimul that is about 82% of the stimuli. Then as the delay time between the tone presentation and the stimula presentation increase the ability the percentage of stimula that the participant can report will decline and steadily it will uh stay in about uh I think 40 40% you know when the tone was presented only uh after 1 second after the uh presentation of the stimula. And when the participant had to report uh the whole stimula, the entire 12 stimula uh without any tone involved, which means uh they uh had to do whole report, they could report like 37 37.5 uh% of the stimula. So it's quite close to um the performance of um participants ability uh in the 1 second delay time. So conclusion, a short-lived sensory memory registers all or most of the information that hits our visual receptors, but that this information decays within less than a second. And this conclusion still holds until today. Okay, as we have already um seen in the previous slides, uh we've got different kinds of sensory memory storage. We've got iconic memory or visual icon which holds uh for visual stimuli and echoic memory which uh allows us to perceive uh to experience persistence of sounds uh like when we saw a thunder a thunder and um flashlight in the sky. Um and this the information about this uh echo or sounds will last for a few seconds after presentations of the original students. Okay. Now let's move to short-term memory. So short-term memory is a system involved in storing small amounts of information for a brief period of time but not as brief as the sensory memory. Yeah. Most of the information is eventually lost and only some of it reaches the more permanent store of long-term memory. Short-term memory is our window on the present. And research on short-term memory has questioned about what is the duration of short-term memory. And the second question is what is the capacity of the short-term memory? So let's look at them. What is the duration of the short-term memory? Well, we've got uh some researchers here done uh who has done uh experiments specifically to answer uh the duration. What is the duration of the STM? Brown in 1958 and Peterson Peterson in 1959. They use the method of recall. So remember recall method is quite important uh procedure or method in memory tasks and they use the recall method to determine the duration of STM. What is the method of recall? That is when participants were shown a stimulus and after a certain period of time, usually not longer than 20 seconds, they were asked to recall as many of the displayed stimula as possible. And there will be also another term that will be related to this um STM phenomenon. It is called as decay. Decay means when the memory trace fades over time after the letter uh after the stimulus is given. The stimulus itself can be a letter can be a image anything. So on the right side of the screen you can see Peter uh the results from Peterson Peterson's experiment. So they uh asked participants to uh remember uh letters that are shown presented on the screen. So the participants uh would have to remember many letters. They were presented one by one on the screen and then they will be asked to um to report as many as possible uh letters that they have seen before and uh they will have [Music] uh variation of delay time for the report time. So some participants sometimes uh the participants will have to report only 3 seconds after they were presented all the stimula. Some part uh sometimes they would have to report like six time six uh seconds after the presentations and then until 18 uh delay time or 18 uh seconds after the presentations. So here you can see the accuracy or the percentage of correct uh recalls would be um would be declining as the retention interval increases. That means we a lot of information um more and more information uh will be decayed as the retention interval increases. And in order to answer how many items can be held in STM uh we can use um different kinds of memory tasks. We can use digit span task, change detection task or chunking task. So for digit spend task uh the the experimenters will use the number of digits um will measure or computed the number of digits a person can remember. So you can read this on page 139. And uh basically um they found that they the capacity of our SDM on average across people would be ranged uh from five to nine items only. And um this is basically based on experiments uh by George Miller who is the founding father of cognitive neuroscience uh in 1956. He suggests that there's a magical number seven plus or minus two. The magical number refers to the capacity of SDN. George Miller, I remember. Um, so I think I'm not going to talk uh a lot about this picture. Let's continue. Okay. The next one is change detection task. This can be used also to measure the capacity of SDM. So the participants were asked to identify the differences or the changes between two similar images. This is done by Edith common. Um here on the right picture here you can see picture A and picture B. On picture A we see one type of trials that cowins used. uh in this trial the participant would see a few stimula that they have to remember. So there are only three stimuli three squares uh red, blue and black and then uh and this stimula will be presented for 100 millisecond. Notice that it is still a brief period of time but longer than what sparrowing has done. And then uh participants would see blank screen for 900 millisecond. This is called also as a delay. And then uh the participant would see also a stimula in this case a square three square as well but they are red, blue and green. In this case uh the question will be different of course because the stimula in the third screen is different from the first screen. Uh but in other case they will see the same stimula because the options are same or different. So you have to usually use 50% of same answers and uh 50% of different answers. Okay. And then on the second um second or the B picture, you've got the second type of stimula. Here participants will first see many stimuli. Uh we got red, green, black, green, blue, purple. uh orange uh yeah red and uh white and then they will have to remember that and the stimula will be presented only for 100 millisecond and then there will be 900 millisecond delay and then the participant will be presented as well with a stimulate and then they will have to detect whether what or identify indicate whether what they see now on the third screen is the same like what the stimula that they have seen in the first screen. And of course the answer should be different because here we see changes in the white uh in the white uh square. Uh but in other cases the answer must be the same. So no changes happen basically using this procedures. Um um oh these experiments were conducted by L Joseph L Fogle sorry not by Edith Cowan. This is experiments by lock and fog and basically lock and fog found in the right picture here that as the number of squares increases the percentage of correct will also decline. That means uh the there is a limited capacity of our short-term memory to um to retain the information. Um that means uh basically yeah it's the same like what almost the same like what George Miller suggested with digit span uh in our uh in using this change detection task. It was concluded that the capacity of STDM for this visual stimula uh is about four items. Okay, because here you can see for four items the accuracy was like still high. So here on the right picture you can see that the percentage of uh accuracy was like very high when the number of squares is very few and then it will decline just a little bit until it was like four squares. But when this as the from there from there on when the squares were uh added more stimuli more squares then the performance will decline uh steeply and even more um as the number of squares increases and then uh there's also another thing that is interesting another phenomena phenomenon uh related to SDM. This is called as chunking. So a chunk is a collection of elements that are strongly associated with one another but are weakly associated with elements in other chunks. And chunking means uh when we are when we are trying to break down uh stimulus like a complex stimulus like words for example into smaller units and the smaller units can be combined into larger um sorry when complex stimulus like words for example they're actually uh built up uh by letters but because words can consist of very uh long letters. So these letters can be called as small units. The small units can also be combined into larger meaningful units. Um these meaningful units can be uh words, can be phrases. If if the if the smaller units are words can also be sentences. Uh if the smaller units are phrases for example or even stories or even stories if the smaller units are um words or sentences. So for example chunking can also be used to record digits into larger units and create meaningful sequences. So here in this case the small units are digits. So 1 2 3 4 or 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 but they can be um they can be recombined or recode recorded uh into larger units. So for example, in the case of four numbers, you can recode the you can recode the digits into a larger units that refer to your uh area code for example or country code example or um phone providers code. Anything that will be meaningful to you can you can use as a part of your chunking strategy. Junking can be uh run can operate because it is based on the interaction between STM and LTM. Why LTM? because we stored meanings of words, meanings of digits, combinations uh in our long-term memory. So chunking must need information or experiences or expertise based on what kind of information that we have already retained we have got in our long-term memory and then we use them by retrieve them and combine them with new stimulus that we have received in our short-term memory. I hope this is still clear to know. Okay. So, chunking can be uh applied in many uh many occasions including competitions like chess competitions. So, this is based on Chase and Simon study in 1973. So, um they have here in the horizontal axis they have two types of participants. chess master and chess beginner players. So, uh they asked the uh the all of these participants, the two groups of participants to remember uh the placements of stimulus. The stimuli will be this um what is it called? this chess thingy, chest things, black and white, they will be placed in different uh locations in the in the board and they will have to remember those placements. And here you can see that the masters can correctly remember the placements and a way much better uh performance compared to the beginners. Why? Because the master the master chess masters does better they do better because they can chunk uh based on game positions. So perhaps they are more familiar because they have played in so many competitions so many yeah chess games. So they could remember the placements. uh but uh this is actually when the stimulus this the stimula were located were placed based on uh the actual game position. So uh this is not just random uh random placements. If it's a random placement that means it's uh something that is unfamiliar for both the masters and the beginners then the performance will not uh be different uh between the masters uh group and the beginners group because the m even the masters uh the chess masters cannot chunk this uh stimuli and so they cannot reproduce uh the placements uh accurately because it's just some random classmates not a real actual game or license. So here you can see that expertise can uh in in some occasion in some uh uh in some events uh the stim the expertise of the person can influence how uh chunking can help them in order to retain uh the information in the STM. But uh in other occasions in the random placements uh for example for chess masters uh it's chunking will not be uh helpful. So uh still about how much information can be held. So the capacity of SDM there's also newer experiments by Alvarez and Kavanagh in 2004. They found that the greater the amount of information in an image that is stored, the fewer items can be retained in visual SDN. And here the greater the amount information in an image means the more complex the image is. The more complex an image that is has to be stored is the fewer items can be tak. So uh the number of items um are not just uh the only factor in this uh that that influence the capacity of our uh SDM but also the amount of detailed information to stimulate is also important. So here you can see uh on the right picture you can see uh sorry so we have two pictures on the a picture on the left side we can see the different types of stimuli that were used by Alvarez and Kavanaaugh they have uh colored squares yeah so very simple uh stimuli only squares but they have different colors and so the participant will just have to detect whether uh there will be changes in the color in the simul that they have seen. So that's easy. Then uh they also use Chinese characters will not be we will which will not be different in colors but they are different in the detailed so-called the the shapes. Yeah. not the detail information only but the shapes and then they have got this random polygons which would make it more difficult than the Chinese characters because um they almost look the same but in detail they're actually different and they also share the same colors but still this will be more difficult and then they have a three dimension um stimuli like these cubes which can be presented in different angles. This can also make it more difficult for a change detection task and kind of task that Alvarez and Gavana used. So on the B picture here you can see the results of the experiment for the simple stimulus the uh the squares. The capacity or the amount of information that can be reported and stored in the STM um of the participants are very high. So more than four uh stimulus can be about four stimulus can be retained and then for the Chinese characters it's only about two or three stimulus and then for the polygons only two stimulus and for the uh shaded cubes only about one or two stimulus. So the amount of detailed information as they increase the uh the ability or the capacity of the SDM will also decrease. Okay, any question? Do you want to have fun quiz while the information that I have presented still in your short-term memory? All right. M only Mary. What about the others? Godess. Okay. I see. See. Sorry. All right. Uh, first question. Rehearsal occurs in the STDM through our files. Anyone guess not? True. Yes, it's good. Next information is stored in SDM for 20 sec 25 seconds. Is that true or false? Yes, Stephen. False. Yes. Next, one form of control processes is in SDM is using attentional strategies. True or false? True or false? Yes, Stephen. Is it also false? No, it's true. But thank you. Okay. Next. When someone focuses information enters STM. True or false? Anyone? Am yes, it's good. Next. When playing with fireworks, moving them left and right creates a zigzag line. This is called persistence of sight. True or false? Is this Kisha says false? Okay, let's see. Remember, yeah, we will see the uh the key uh the answer key. zero remember or fifth the fifth question answers. According to Sperling, sensory memory records all or almost all information that enters visual receptors, but this information decays within less than 1 second. True or false? anyone? Yes, Nadine. No, it's true. Yes, it's true. It's good. Uh, the seventh question memory is memory in the form of images. True or false? money. False. Okay, let's see. Yeah, seventh question. Remember, yeah, money. Uh, we will see the answer key. Okay, the eighth question. Asking individuals to recall a series of digits is used to determine STM capacity. True or false? True. Yes. Thank you. The greater the amount of information in an image that is stored, the more items can be retained in visual STM. True or false? This is the last one, the last slide. False. Yes. Question 10. The magical number 7 plus or minus two is an evidence that there are limitations in how long information is stored in STM. True or false? Yes, Aman. False. That's good. What is it actually? How many information is stored in short-term memory? Yes, that's good. Thank you, Amani. Okay, the answer key. So uh Aman said that it was true right? Um sorry uh I forgot which question that I haven't uh clarified the fifth question and the seventh question. Is that true? So the fifth question is about this one. Did I already Sorry, this one. Did I already said this? H not yet. Not yet. Not yet. Okay. And uh who answered this question? I think Amania or uh Stephen or um anyways it has to be um persistence of light. That's site. So it's why it it is false here. And then the seventh one is echoic memory is memory in the form of images is supposed to be true. Oh sorry has to be oops I think there's something wait in a form of images. Uh let's check here. Yes, Mary, do you want to ask isn't number five the persistence of vision? Yes. So number five v yeah yeah persistent of vision not like persistence of vision. Yes. Thank you. Okay. Thank you. That's good. Thank you. Um let's see the uh what is what is stored in the I call it mine. Oh I use this one. Yeah. So echoic memory it's supposed to be for auditory not uh for um not for images. So what did Aman uh Amani what did you answer honey? I forgot. I answered false. Oh that's good. Sorry, I didn't pay attention. Right. My bad. All right. So, any question about what we have already um learned about STM, sensory memory and STM as well. I have a question. Mhm. Um what is the difference between encoding and control process? I think both um refers to like the process that information goes to the long-term memory from shortterm memory. Yeah, encoding uh is different from control process because encoding is just encoding uh in control process uh it involves something deliberately uh yeah well there's also some deliberation perhaps in in the encoding process but uh control process means that the information was already in the let me Where is it? So this is the control process and then for encoding. Hi. Oh here. So encoding is the process of set. Yeah. Yeah. It's the long-term memory. Yeah. And uh and there is control process, dynamic process that can be controlled by the person and may different and the examples are rehearsal strategies, uh memory strategies and potential strategies. Uh I think control process uh refers to more like a specific method of encoding. Yeah. Uh Mary was it your question? Uh yes m yeah so control process is more like form of encoding you think. So you can encode things. Um you can take in information. Oh sorry encoding is when you're taking in taking in information [Music] right sometimes for me I I am a cognitive neuroscientist but for me I just use the the term like it's already in my implicit memory. don't even remember when I learn about it. So, it's the process of storing information in the long-term memory. Yeah, of course, if this is the definition. So, uh uh control process is part of encoding Mary. Oh, sorry. That was Aman's question. Oh, sorry. It was Aman. Oh my god, my shortterm memory almost like Yes. Thank you for the question Amani. Any other question? Any other question?