Overview of Islamic History (Late Antiquity to the Ottoman Empire)

Pre-Islamic Arabia and the Rise of Islam

6th Century Arabian Peninsula: Home to nomadic tribes, influenced by the Persian Sasanian Empire and the Christian Byzantine Empire.
Religious Context: Predominantly polytheistic tribes.
Birth of Muhammad (570 CE): Believed to be the last prophet by Muslims, tasked with spreading monotheism.
Qur'an Revelation: Compiled teachings of Muhammad.
Migration to Medina: Marks the start of the Islamic calendar; consolidation of Muslim community, wars against idolaters, unification of Arab tribes.
Death of Muhammad (632 CE): Led to questions of leadership succession.

Rashidun Caliphs: First four caliphs, chosen based on their connection to Muhammad; marked by expansion and internal tensions.
Expansion: Rapid growth from Iran to North Africa, notable weakening of the Byzantine and collapse of the Sasanian Empire.
Sunni-Shia Split: Emerged from succession disputes, with Shias supporting Ali ibn Abi Talib as rightful successor, Sunnis opposed.

Umayyad Caliphate (661-750): Shift of capital to Damascus, establishment of a dynasty, expansion, and cultural identity projects like the Dome of the Rock.
- Challenges: Internal divisions and opposition culminated in Umayyad downfall.
Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258): Sunni dynasty claiming lineage to Muhammad’s uncle, moved capital to Baghdad, ushered in Islamic Golden Age.
- Cultural Flourishing: Translations of Greek texts, original scholarship, and advancements in various sciences.

Weakening of Abbasid Power: Rise of local dynasties, diminished political/military power of the caliph.
Persian Influence: Persian cultural revival and political influence in the Caliphate.
Shia Influence: Fatimid and Buyid dynasties, Shia Islam became a defined religious movement.

Seljuk Turks: Sunni military family, controlled Baghdad, protected Sunni Islam from Shia threats, expanded influence into Anatolia.
Crusades (1095-1291): Initiated by Catholic Church, occupation of Jerusalem, establishment of states in the Middle East.
Saladin: Eliminated Fatimid rule, founded the Ayyubid dynasty, recaptured Jerusalem.

Mongol Conquests: Fall of Baghdad (1258) ended Islamic Golden Age, Abbasids lose power.
Mamluk Sultanate: Defeated Mongols at Ain Jalut, crushed Crusaders, revived Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo.

Ilkhanid and Timurid Invasions: Continuation of cultural flourishing amid brutality.
Ottoman Empire Emergence: Founded by Osman in 1300, expanded into Europe and Middle East.
Capture of Constantinople (1453): Marked a major shift, became the Ottoman capital.
Gunpowder Empires: 16th-century stability, encompassed Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals.
Collapse of the Ottoman Empire: Lasted until World War I, marked the end of the Caliphate system.