AP Psychology Unit 2 Summary Notes

Instructor Introduction

• Presenter: Mr. Sin
• Unit Focus: Cognition
• Resources: Study guide and answer key available in the ultimate review packet.
• Emphasis on active learning.

Key Concepts in Cognition

Sensation vs. Perception

• Sensation: Raw data received from sensory receptors.
• Perception: Interpretation of sensory information.
• Sensation = detecting a stimulus; Perception = interpreting a stimulus.

Types of Processing

• Top-Down Processing: Using prior knowledge to interpret information.
  • Efficient but may overlook mistakes (e.g., proofreader illusion).
• Bottom-Up Processing: Building perception from new stimuli.
  • Takes longer; no prior knowledge used.

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas: Mental frameworks from past experiences.
• Perceptual Sets: Mental shortcuts influencing immediate perception.
• Internal factors (e.g., mood, culture) and external factors (e.g., environment) influence perception.

Attention and Perception

• Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others (e.g., cocktail party effect).
• Inattentional Blindness: Missing stimuli due to divided attention.
• Change Blindness: Missing changes in environment.

Perceptual Phenomena

• Apparent Movement: Perception of motion without movement.
• Types:
  • Stroboscopic Motion: Animation technique.
  • Phi Phenomenon: Sequential lights creating motion perception.
  • Induced Movement: Stationary object appears moving due to surrounding motion.
  • Autokinetic Effect: Stationary light appears to move in darkness.

Gestalt Psychology Principles

• Figure and Ground: Differentiating object (figure) from background (ground).
• Continuation: Natural tendency to follow continuous lines.
• Closure: Filling in gaps to perceive a complete object.
• Similarity: Grouping similar objects as a unit.
• Proximity: Objects close together perceived as a group.
• Symmetry: Symmetrical objects perceived as one.

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Convergence and retinal disparity for depth.
• Monocular Cues:
  • Relative Size
  • Interposition
  • Relative Height
  • Shading and Contour
  • Texture Gradient
  • Linear Perspective
  • Motion Parallax

Perceptual Constancy

• Size Constancy: Perceive true size regardless of distance.
• Color Constancy: Perceive constant color under varying lighting.
• Shape Constancy: Perceive constant shape despite changes.
• Lightness Constancy: Perceive constant shading in different lighting.

Cognition and Problem Solving

Cognitive Structures

• Concepts: Mental categories for organizing information.
• Prototypes: Best example of a concept.
• Schemas: Complex frameworks for organizing and interpreting information.

Problem Solving Strategies

• Algorithms: Step-by-step systematic approach.
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for quick decisions.
  • Representative Heuristic: Judging by resemblance.
  • Availability Heuristic: Judging by memory ease.

Executive Functions

• Mental Sets: Frameworks for problem-solving based on past experiences.
• Priming: Prior exposure influences responses.
  • Repetition Priming
  • Semantic Priming

Decision-Making Influences

• Framing: How information presentation affects interpretation.
• Cognitive Biases:
  • Gambler's Fallacy: Misjudging future probabilities.
  • Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing actions due to past investments.

Memory

Types of Memory

• Explicit Memory: Conscious recall (episodic and semantic).
• Implicit Memory: Unconscious skills and tasks.
• Prospective Memory: Remembering future actions.

Memory Retention

• Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening neural connections.
• Working Memory Model: Processing and temporary holding (Sketchpad, Phonological Loop, Central Executive).
• Multi-Store Model: Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Encoding and Retrieval

• Encoding Types: Visual, acoustic, tactile, organizational, elaborative, semantic.
• Mnemonic Devices: Techniques to enhance memory.
• Retrieval Cues: Context, mood, and state-dependent memory.

Forgetting and Memory Distortion

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting followed by leveling off.
• Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference.
• Repression and Constructive Memory: Altered memories due to various factors.

Intelligence

Intelligence and Measurement

• General Ability vs. Multiple Abilities: Debate on intelligence components.
• Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence: Problem-solving vs. accumulated knowledge.
• Fixed vs. Growth Mindset: Beliefs about the changeability of intelligence.

Intelligence Testing

• IQ Tests: Measure intelligence; can be influenced by biases.
• Psychometric Principles: Standardization, reliability, and validity.

Achievement vs. Aptitude Tests

• Achievement Tests: Measure knowledge at a specific time.
• Aptitude Tests: Predict future performance.

• Final Note: Engage with quizzes and practice resources to deepen understanding. Check the ultimate review packet for additional materials and confirmation of key concepts learned.