what's going on all of my Healthcare brothers and sisters I hope that you are having a wonderful day if you plan on going to any kind of healthcare college or you're going to take your atits to get into that college you're gonna have to know human anatomy and physiology it's going to be a little bit of a long video we're going to cover all of the body systems you need to know and we're going to help you pass your tests the first time let's get started so you might be asking yourself there's so much to know about human anatomy and physiology specifically what do I need to know for this test well you're going to have to know the general orientation of human anatomy and you're going to have to know the general information about the body system so that includes respiratory cardiovascular digestive nervous muscular reproductive integumentary endocrine urinary immune as well as skeletal out of the 44 questions that are going to be in the section 18 of them specifically are about human anatomy physiology so it's really important to know this information to pass your atits so to begin we're going to look at anatomical terminology the atits will expect you to be able to identify the position and location of the human body so common anatomical terminology that you're probably going to see on your exam is cephalic so that is your head cranial refers to your skull facial is your face frontal that's like your forehead occipital that's the base of the skull temporal that's your temple area orbital or ocular that's your eyes optic that's your ears buccal your cheek nasal your nose oral your mouth mental that's your chin cervical of course that's your neck your cervical spine right sternal that's your breast bone that's what we push down on we do CPR thoracic that's your chest mammary are your breasts acromial is your shoulder and then you've got scapular which is your shoulder blade vertebral that is your spinal column lumbar that's your lower back dorsal that's just your back in general um axillary that's your armpit and then you have brachial that's your arm some more anatomical terminology you need to know is anti-brachial that's your forearm carpal is your wrist Palmer is the actual palm of your hand polex your thumb dorsum the back of your hand manual is your hand itself digital or phalangeal is your fingers abdominal it's right in the name right abdomen umbilical is your navel cocca is your hips sacral sacral I'm sorry is between your hips coccygeal is the actual tail bone gluteal is your buttocks pelvic is your pelvis pubic is the pubis area perineal is that area between the anus and the external genitalia inguinal is your groin area femoral is your thigh patella is the front of the knee and popliteal is the back of the knee curial is your shin Cyril is the calf pedal is your foot and tarsal is your ankle and the last bit of anatomical terminology you'll need to know is digital of the phalange is your toe pedal is your foot plantar is the soul of your foot calcaneal is your heel tarsal is your ankle dorsum is the top of your foot and hallux is your grade toe in addition to the terminology you're going to need to understand positioning as well as Direction so when you're in when you're studying it's important that you actually understand the standard anatomical positions that we're going to go through right now so the first thing you have is anterior that is towards the front so for example my kneecap is on the anterior side of my leg it's on the back it's on the front posterior is towards the back so for example the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body next we have Superior and inferior so Superior means it's towards the head right Superior inferior towards the bottom Superior towards the head so Superior for example is the hand is part of my Superior extremity this extremity is higher than my legs right inferior is towards the feet so for example the foot is part of the inferior extremity Superior extremity inferior extremity are your legs so next we have medial and lateral so medial is towards the midline think m stands for midline medial midline so if we look at our body our chest is medial to our arms right it's in the middle of our body then we have lateral so lateral is away from the midline it's further away lay lateral away from the body so for example the little toe is lateral to the victo of the same foot you see our big toe is in the midline our little toe is on the lateral line so the last set that we're going to look at is proximal and distal so when we're looking at proximal we're looking at being closer to the trunk of the body so this is your trunk right all of this is your trunk of your body whereas distal means it's going to be further away from the trunk of the body so when we're looking at examples for proximal the proximal end of the femur joins the pelvic bone right so that end that connects into our pelvic bone is proximal to the body whereas when we're looking at distal and we're trying to figure out what's further away from the trunk we can absolutely say that our hand is distal to the shoulder right the shoulders closer to the trunk of the body and our hand is much more distal it's much further away from the body hopefully that clears up some anatomical positions to help you pass your atits and the last piece we're going to look at is common directional terms so the sagittal plane or median remember medial is the vertical plane that divides the body into right and left halves it goes right down the middle median think of sagittal median the frontal plane okay or the corneal plane is the vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior halves so think frontal corneal front right it's going to divide my front from my back and then lastly the transverse plane or the cross section that's the one that is the only one that goes horizontal right everything else goes vertical this one is going to go horizontal and that's going to divide the body into Superior which is the top half from the inferior which is the lower half now let's start taking a closer look at our individual systems of the body we're going to begin by looking at the respiratory system so what do you need to know about your systems the big thing you need to know is what is their structure and what is their function so let's begin with the structure of the respiratory system so as we know the respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen from the environment and releasing carbon dioxide which is a byproduct of our metabolism the structure of the respiratory system includes the nose the mouth the throat the larynx the trachea the bronchi as well as the lung so let's take a look at each one of these individually so to begin with we have our nose right our notice it's right here up in the front and that is the external opening to our respiratory system that's what lets in the oxygen and out that carbon dioxide right within the nose you have nostrils and they lead to the nasal cavity which is divided into two sections by that septum next you have your mouth as well as your throat right your these are Big parts of your respiratory system the throat specifically is the tube that starts behind the nose and goes down into the esophagus the larynx are the voice box which it's right about here is located at the top of the trachea next underneath that you have the trachea right you have your wind pipe that sits right in here and that tube goes from the larynx into your bronchi and then your bronchi are two main tubes that lead from the trachea into the lungs you have a left and you have a right your bronchioles are the smaller tubes that Branch off from the bronchi and lead to your alveoli right so you got a little tube here a little tube there a little tube here so on and so forth and then next you have your alveoli which are like little sacks that are located at the end of those bronchioles and that's primarily where that gas exchange takes place if you see them on any kind of depiction they look kind of like little great clusters that's what your alveoli are and then lastly you have your lungs you have your right lung and you have your left lung the right lung is divided into three sections whereas your left lung is divided into two sections do you know why your left lung has only two sections it's because that's where your heart sits your heart sits right about in here in order to make room for the heart your body has done so by removing one of those sections giving your heart a little bit more room inside your chest cavity so what is the function of the respiratory system so the respiratory system as we said before is responsible for taking an oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide when you breathe in or inhale your diaphragm contracts and moves downwards this increases the volume within your thoracic cavity and decreases the pressure that's inside it oxygen is then pulled in from the atmosphere as well as other elements but we won't go into those oxygen passes from the alveoli into the blood and as a result air flows into your lungs now when we breathe out or exhale your diaphragm relaxes and then it moves back upward this decreases the volume in your thoracic cavity and increases the pressure inside of it carbon dioxide is released from the alveoli into the lungs and that is also known as ventilation right we breathe out that carbon dioxide and as a result the air flows out of your lungs the respiratory system is also responsible for maintaining pH that's in the blood this one's actually pretty cool when the blood becomes too acidic the respiratory system kicks into overdrive and removes that excess acid through our respiratory system this is done by blowing off carbon dioxide which is considered an acidic gas so what are some factors that can ultimately affect our respiratory system well number one there's diseases right we have pneumonia bronchitis and Asthma all of these can affect the way that we breathe asthma is really a common one that you're going to see in a lot of persons that comes to the hospital and that is because ultimately your Airways narrow and it makes it difficult to breathe mucous buildup is another issue that can ultimately affect breathing by making it difficult to inhale and exhale out now smoking cigarettes is also a major factor that can damage the respiratory system because as we know cigarette smoke contains a number of harmful chemicals that can ultimately damage the lungs in the Airways additional factors such as pollution and dust can also affect the system you know as the air quality becomes poor it can irritate the lungs and cause problems with our breathing and then lastly allergies and inflammation can play a huge role on the respiratory system if you have allergies your Airways may become narrowed right they become inflamed with all of that inflammation which can make it more difficult to breathe and people who experience shortness of breath wheezing as well as difficulty breathing typically have some kind of allergy or some kind of inflammation taking place now let's take a closer look at my personal favorite organ and that is the heart the cardiovascular system so when it comes to this particular system it's really made up of the heart the blood vessels and the blood so let's begin by looking at the heart so when it comes to our heart we know that this is that muscular organ that pumps out blood throughout the body we have four chambers and that includes our right atrium and our left atrium and then we have our right ventricle and our left ventricle and of course we have this the septum that septum is the wall that separates the left and right side of our Chambers so moving on to our blood vessels these are the tubes that actually carry that blood throughout the body and there are three major types of blood vessels we have our arteries our veins as well as our capillaries so when it comes to Our arteries that is the rich oxygen rich blood that is being carried throughout the heart while the veins are carrying the oxygen poor blood that's our deoxygenated blood throughout the heart once Our arteries carries an oxygen-rich blood throughout the body it gets delivered into our capillaries and these are those tiny little vessels that connect Our arteries to our veins that's where all of that exchange of nutrients takes place in all of those byproducts are exchanged and then next we have our blood right so that's that liquid that carries that off the oxygen the nutrients that goes throughout our body and then it takes that carbon dioxide and those waste products back from the blood once all of that's been collected it goes back through our veins so our deoxygenated blood goes back to the veins and back to the heart where all of that exchange again takes place so we're either breathing out our carbon dioxide or taking in our oxygen so two common words you're going to hear a lot is systole and diastole and that's what happens during our cardiac cycle right with Sicily that is the contraction of the heart and diastole is when the heart relaxes okay so during Sicily the blood is being pumped out of the heart and into the arteries the atrioventricular valve is that is our mitral and our tricuspid valves actually close and that closing of those vowels is what causes that love sound that you hear first during diastole blood is flowing into the heart and filling the chambers and that's when our semilunar valves are aortic and our pulmonic valves actually close and that's when you hear the Lo the dub sound so during Sicily you hear lump and then during diastole you're here so next we're going to move on to the heart's electrical system so we have these nose or these different pacemakers located throughout the heart that helps let the heart know that it needs to contract we have the sinoatrial node which is located in the upper right atrium we have the atrial ventricular node which is located at the junction between the Atria and the ventricles we have the bundle of His and then we have the left and right bundle branches that go between the left and right of the heart ultimately ending in the purkinje fibers so as we know the sinoatrial node is the primary pacemaker of the heart right that's what gives us our sinus rhythms and we get those beats that are should be between 60 to 100 beats per minute if for some reason the sinoatrial node was to give up the next pacemaker that would kick in would be our atrial node right our atrioventricular node that is that node that's located right there kind of at the junction and with that particular note it's not going to be as fast as the sinoatrial node it's going to beat between 40 to 60 beats per minute that is what it is preset at in order to pump the heart now if for some reason this sinoatrial node and the atrioventricular node were to give up the last ditch effort of the heart are the purkinje fibers and that is located all the way at the bottom along our ventricular walls and what the purkinje fibers beat at is 20 to 40 beats per minute so these are going to be really really slow heart rhythms when our sinoatrial node and our atrial ventricular node has ultimately given up now let's take a closer look at how blood flows through the cardiovascular system something that's important to note is that the cardiovascular system is ultimately a closed system and this just means that the blood stays within the vessels and don't leak out of those vessels under normal conditions we understand that damage and things can occur but under normal conditions everything stays within this closed system the heart pumps oxygenated blood through the arteries from the lungs to the left atrium down into the left ventricle and out through the aorta to the rest of the body the blood then flows through the capillaries where it exchanges oxygen and nutrients in the tissues for carbon dioxide and waste and then the carbon dioxide wastes an oxygen pore remember that's that deoxygenated blood are then transported through the veins back to the heart the blood enters into the right atrium and then into the right ventricle and back into the lungs or that carbon dioxide and waste material is released and oxygen is then taken into the red blood cells and the entire process starts all over again with oxygenating the body lastly let's take a closer look at the functions of the cardiovascular system we've talked about number one way into depth and that is the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the cells of the body and removing that carbon dioxide in waste so we won't go further into that but we will start with number two which is helping maintain the body's blood pressure so when it comes to the blood pressure that is the force of the blood against the walls of the artery so as you can imagine if the blood pressure is too high that means that force is going to be increased and that can ultimately damage the arteries whereas if the blood pressure is too low it's going to cause problems with the blood flow throughout the system in addition to blood pressure it also helps with body temperature so when the body temperature rises the blood vessels dilate that means that they widen to allow that heat to escape but when the body temperature drops the blood vessels constrict that means that they start to narrow and they prevent heat from escaping the body in order to maintain what heat is left in there uh they the cardiovascular system also helps maintain the body's pH right so we have a bicarbonate buffer system that helps maintain acid by removing excess hydrogen ions from the blood and then lastly there's various other things that the cardiovascular system does they also transport hormones about throughout the body they help fight against infections they also Aid in the digestion of food as well as assist with the repair of damaged tissues let's take a closer look at the structure of the digestive system yes we're moving on to the GI so the digestive system is composed of the GI tract that's your gastrointestinal tract as well as accessory organs so the GI tract is a long continuous tube that starts with the mouth and ends with the anus the GI tract is divided into the following parts you have your mouth your esophagus your stomach small intestine large intestine as well as your rectum so let's see how food Journeys through this system so digestion of food truly begins in the mouth where you chew and you mechanically digest that's that physical breakdown of food that's where that mechanical breakdown occurs mucus and saliva lubricates the food and enzymes with like things like amylase and lipase and that's what initiates the chemical digestion of starches and lipids the bolus of food that is swallowed then travels down to the pharynx and into the esophagus peristalsis which is the contraction of muscles occur within the esophagus to help move the food down into the stomach stomach is shaped kind of like a j-shaped sac and that's where the food is stored and it again initiates additional chemical digestion with enzymes gastric acid kills bacteria denatures any kind of proteins and activates those digestive enzymes in the small intestine this is the main site of a digestion as well as absorption and that's composed of your duodenum your jejunum and your Ilium the small intestine is coiled and has a series of foldings that increase the surface area for absorption next it goes into your large intestine and that is composed of your cecum your colon as well as your rectum and the large intestine absorbs water electrolytes and vitamins produced by the enteric bacteria that's located in there and then lastly your rectum is the final section of the GI tract and that's where it stores your feces until it's ultimately eliminated through defecation the accessory organs include your teeth your tongue your salivary glands liver gallbladder as well as your pancreas they all work together to help with the digestion of food these organs help break down those smaller pieces in the body and also helps absorb nutrients along the way lastly we're going to take a closer look at the enzymes and hormones that are involved in digestion that you'll need to know for your tests number one is gastrin gastrin is the hormone that is produced by the stomach and stimulates the production of stomach acid Chloe cystic kinen or cck is the hormone that is produced by the small intestine and stimulates the release of enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver sacritin is a hormone that is produced by the small intestine and stimulates the production of bicarbonate from the liver of course we have insulin our favorite and that hormone is produced by the pancreas and helps regulate our blood sugar levels glucagon that hormone is produced by the pancreas and helps release glucose from the liver and then lastly we have bile and this is the fluid that is produced by the liver and ultimately stored in our gallbladder bile breaks down fats that are found within the small intestine let's talk about that nervous system so the division of the nervous system it is divided into two parts our central nervous system as well as our peripheral nervous system so our central nervous system is composed of our brain and our spinal cord and this is the Central Command Center where all communication and actions occur in the body whereas with our peripheral nervous system that is composed of nerves that Branch off from the spinal cord and innervate the body this system sends the signals by the brain to targeted locations the nervous system is ultimately responsible for transmitting signals between the body and the Brain one of the key structures you need to know is the structure of a neuron this is the basic unit of the nervous system neurons are composed of cell bodies dendrites and an axon the cell body contains the nucleus as well as other organelles the dendrites are short branch-like extensions that generate graded electrical impulses the axon is that long extension that transmits the signals to another neuron at the end of the axon there are kind of terminal buttons which release neurotransmitters called the axon terminal myON sheath is that white fatty substance that covers the axon and helps to increase the speed of nerve impulses and then lastly synapses is the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron so we have a couple different kind of neurons within our body we have sensor your afferent neurons and we have motor or efferent neurons Sensory neurons send messages to the central nervous system whereas our motor neurons send messages to our muscles right and these can be further broken down into autonomic also known as involuntary and somatic voluntary nervous systems so with our involuntary nervous system it's responsible for those involuntary actions such as our heart rate our digestion and our respirations we don't really have any control over those things right whereas our somatic nervous system is responsible for our voluntary actions and that is the movement of our limbs let's get muscular let's talk about different types of muscle tissue so there's three different types we have skeletal we have cardiac and we have smooth so beginning with skeletal muscle this is what is attached to bones and is responsible for the movement of our body think skeletal movement of the body these muscles are striated and very strong the muscles are the only voluntary tissue that's found within the body next is our cardiac muscle and this is of course found within our heart and that is what helps pump blood throughout the body these muscles are also striated cardiac muscle tissue cannot be consciously controlled making this muscle involuntary and then lastly we have smooth muscle and that's what's found in the walls of our internal organs such as our stomach our intestines as well as our blood vessels these muscles are not striated they are the only ones that are not striated and they are of course also involuntary they cannot be controlled consciously these muscles are the weakest of all muscle tissue so what is the function of muscle tissues muscle is responsible for the movement of the body we know that right they generate Force by Contracting and producing Movement by moving the bones to which they are attached to there are over 700 named muscles in the body and it makes up approximately half of our total body weight so we talked about this a little bit before and that is nerves and muscles work cooperatively to help with muscle movement nerves control muscles by sending signals or impulses to the muscles these impulses causes the muscles to contract and generate Force the nerve impulse originates in the brain is sent through the spinal cord to the muscle the message is then sent down to the axon of the nerve of that muscle in the muscle fiber receives that message and ultimately contracts so we're going to talk briefly about the reproductive system but we're not going to get too graphic with it but these are the things that you're going to need to know we're going to start with the structures of the male reproductive system the male reproductive system is made up of the testes the epidymidis the vas deferens the seminal vesicles the prostate gland as well as the penis so the testes are a pair of oval shaped organs that produce sperm as well as testosterone the epidymis is the long coiled tube that stores and transports that sperm the vast difference is a long thin tube that carries sperm from the epidymis to the seminal vesicles and then those particular vesicles are a pair of sac-like structures that produces the fluid that helps nourish the sperm the prostate gland is a small round organ that produces a fluid that helps transport the sperm and then lastly the penis that's that long cylindrical organ that carries urine as well as sperm outside of the body so for the female reproductive system that is made up of ovaries Fallopian tubes the uterus vagina as well as the vulva so the ovaries is a pair of small oval-shaped organs that produce eggs and hormones the fallopian tube is a pair of long thin tubes that carries those eggs from the ovaries to the uterus the uterus is a pear-shaped organ that houses and protects the developing fetus and the vagina is a long again cylindrical like organ that carries blood as well as mucosal tissue from the uterus during a woman's monthly period it also provides a passageway for intercourse and sperm to enter into the uterus and again allows passage for vaginal childbirth the vulva is the external female genitalia and that includes the labia the clitoris as well as the urethra lastly you need to understand the relationship between the reproductive system and the endocrine system there are various hormones that are part of the endocrine system that help control processes within the reproductive system let's break each one of these down you have the gonadotropin releasing hormone which is produced by the hypothalamus and stimulates the release of follicle stimulating hormones as well as luteinizing hormones from the pituitary gland you have the follicle stimulating hormone which helps to stimulate the growth of eggs in the ovaries as well as control the menstrual cycle luteinizing hormones help to trigger ovulation and they release an egg from the ovary testosterone is a hormone produced by the testes that helps with the production of sperm and development of male characteristics unlike in females sperm is constantly being produced and matured whereas with females the egg is only released once a month estrogen is a hormone produced by the ovaries to help with the development of female characteristics and regulates the menstrual cycle so what does this look like in females and a female reproductive system the follicle stimulating hormone signals the ovaries to produce more estrogen estrogen causes the egg to mature luteinizing hormone is released causing the eggs to produce progesterone to prepare the endometrium for implantation the egg is unreleased from the ovary and travels down the fallopian tube to the uterus if the egg is fertilized by sperm then it will implant itself into the uterus and begin to grow however if the egg is not fertilized then it will begin shedding during menstruation let's talk about that good old integumentary system what is the structure of this system well it's ultimately made up of skin hair nails and our sweat glands the skin is the largest organ in the body and is made up of three layers we have the epidermis the dermis and the subcutaneous hypodermis so the epidermis is the outer layer of the skin and that's what helps with the waterproof barrier as well as protecting our body from infection underneath that you have your dermis that's that middle layer of the skin and this usually contains your blood vessels nerves hair follicles as well as sweat glands and then lastly the subcutaneous level also known as the hypodermis is the innermost layer of the skin and that typically contains fat as well as connective tissue so really what is the overall function of this system the integumentary system has several functions including protection regulation of body temperature and sensation so with protection the skin protects the body from harmful substances UV rays as well as excessive water loss by creating a barrier from outside pathogens melanocytes produce melanin that help protect against those ultraviolet radiation rays excretion excretion is primarily with our sweat glands and that's what helps to regulate our body temperature by producing sweat that evaporates and cools the body sweat contains Trace Amounts of lactic acid urea as well as alcohol and then lastly sensation the skin is packed with nerve endings and allows us to touch feel pressure heat as well as cold so how does the integumentary system help with homeostasis well it helps by regulating the body temperature as well as fluid balance when the body becomes too warm like the guy behind me the blood vessels in the skin dilate and sweat is produced to help cool the body if the body becomes too cold like we talked about before the blood vessels constrict they narrow and the body produces less sweat in order to maintain Heat moving on to our endocrine system we've got a little bit of an introduction in our other portions of the atits exam human anatomy and physiology but now we're going to look very specifically at this system and we're going to begin by looking at the glands so the endocrine system is made up of a network of glands that produce and secrete hormones these hormones help regulate many body functions including growth and development metabolism reproduction and mood so to begin with the pituitary gland is the master gland of the endocrine system and it helps produce growth hormones prolactin as well as additional hormones the thyroid gland produces thyroxine as well as calcitonin thyroxine helps regulate our metabolism while calcitonin helps regulate calcium levels in our blood the parathyroid gland produces parathyroid hormone which helps with the regulation of calcium levels within the blood the thymus gland produces thiamosin which helps to develop the immune system the adrenal gland produces epinephrine as well as norepinephrine which helps regulate our fight or flight response the pancreas produces insulin and glucagon which helps regulate our blood sugar levels and then lastly our testes those produce testosterone which helps regulate the development of male reproductive organs and secondary sex characteristics so let's look at the functions of the endocrine system we talked about a lot of them before with our growth and development metabolism reproduction as well as mood with growth and development growth hormone helps stimulate cell division as well as bone growth with our metabolism insulin for example helps regulate blood sugar levels and our reproduction system estrogen and progesterone help to regulate the menstrual cycle and then lastly with our mood norepinephrine and epinephrine help regulate that fight or flight response that we feel many hormones from the endocrine glands have different chemical structures including lipid-based proteins or lipid-based hormones nonpolar fat soluble hormones as well as water soluble hormones so let's break each one of these down lipid-based hormones are made up of cholesterol and include testosterone as well as our estrogen these hormones are insoluble in water and are transported in the blood by carrier proteins nonpolar fat soluble hormones are made of amino acids and that includes our thyroid hormones these hormones are insoluble to water and are transported in the blood again by those carrier proteins and then lastly we have water-soluble hormones these are also made up of amino acids and include things like epinephrine these hormones are soluble in water and are transported in the blood by diffusion the last couple topics we're going to look at is homeostasis in the endocrine system as well as those positive and negative feedback mechanisms so we talked about homeostasis a little bit before in our previous slide and that ultimately is maintained by the use of growth and development metabolism reproduction and mood so I'm not going to go through those again however with our positive and negative feedback mechanisms this is used to maintain homeostasis in the system as well a positive feedback mechanism is a process that amplifies the change in a given Direction so for example the release of oxytocin during childbirth is a positive feedback mechanism that amplifies the change that needs to be given for childbirth oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and causes the fetus to push against and stretch the cervix whereas with our negative feedback system this is a process that reverses the change or tries to slow it down so for example the release of insulin in response to high blood sugar levels is a negative feedback mechanism that is because it can reverse that change or slow down the lowering of the blood sugar levels we don't want to release too much and then cause us to bottom out with our blood sugar the pancreas is able to adjust the amount of hormones that is secreted in proportion to the amount of blood glucose that is detected in the blood next let's talk about that good old Orient them kidneys specifically the urinary system the urinary system is made up to kidneys the real cortex are renal medulla uterus bladder and urethra the kidneys are a pair of organs that help filter blood and produce urine the renal cortex is the outer layer of the kidneys and contains the renal pyramids and blood vessels you're either a pareton is stimulated in the production of new red blood cells here the renal medulla is the inner layer of the kidney that helps concentrate the urine the ureters are a pair of tubes that carry the urine from the kidneys into the bladder the bladder is that little Sac that stores the urine until it is ready to be excreted and the urethra is the two that carries the urine from the bladder to the outside of the body so let's talk about the overall function of the urinary system the urinary system is really an integral part of the homeostasis within the body the system helps excrete ways and maintain balance the structural unit of the kidney is called the nephron nephrons are responsible for the filtration of Blood by removing waste and reabsorbing water in molecules the glomerius is a ball of capillaries that is the site of filtration within the neuron and the tubule is a tube that leads from the glomerius to the renal pelvis the tubule is responsible for that reabsorption and secretion what remains from the tubule will be carried into the kidney and drained out from the ureter as always these systems are going to talk to each other right so what is the relationship between the cardiovascular system and the urinary system well the cardiovascular system and the urinary system really work together to again help maintain that homeostasis within the body the cardiovascular system transports blood to the kidneys so that it can be filtered the urinary system excretes that waste and helps regulate blood pressure by controlling the volume of blood in turn the kidneys produced a hormone called urethropoietin that stimulates the production of new red blood cells for the cardiovascular system so let's talk about our favorite system that helps with our infection rates and that is our immune system so the immune system is made up of innate defense as well as adaptive defense systems the innate defense system is the body's first line of defense against infections and includes those physical barriers such as our skin our mucous membranes as well as chemical barriers such as enzymes and stomach acids the Adaptive system is the body's second line of defense and includes the lymphatic system white blood cells and antibodies ultimately the immune system protects the bodies from foreign Invaders such as bacteria viruses and fungi it does this by recognizing these Invaders and producing antibodies to destroy them the immune system also helps to remove these Invaders from the body and memory T cells help the body to remember these Invaders as they can be destroyed in the future more quickly when they re-enter the body so let's look at the innate defense system a little bit closer the innate defense system is the body's first line of defense against infections and we talked about that that's the skin and those mucous membranes as well as those chemical barriers such as enzymes and stomach acids one of the first responses is called the inflammatory response this is when blood vessels dilate and white blood cells and fluids are sent to the area of infection we also have histamines that are going to be released causing the increase of blood flow to an area and the number of white blood cells to that area is going to be called phagocytes those phagocytes destroy the unknown bacteria that's in that area this response helps remove foreign Invaders and Begins the healing process within the system so as always we need to have a secondary defense right and that is our adaptive defense system that includes our lymphatic system white blood cells and antibodies this system functions with the help of antigens antigen presenting cells helper T cells cytotoxic T cells cytokines antibodies as well as memory cells so let's take a closer look at each one of these antigens are foreign Invaders that the body has been exposed to such as bacteria and viruses that induce an immune response antigen presenting cells are white blood cells that engulf the foreign Invader and present the antigen on its surface helper T cells is the type of white blood cells that help activate the other cells within the immune system the helper T cells induce B cells that secrete a large number of antibodies to bind to that antigen cytotoxic T cells are the type of white blood I'm sorry white blood cells that destroy infected cells cytokines are chemicals that help to regulate the immune system and activate additional cytotoxic T cells next we have antibodies and these are proteins that attach to the antigen to help destroy them all together and then lastly are our memory cells and these are the white blood cells that remember that specific foreign Invader and helps the body to respond more quickly if that Invader was to enter the body again so we have two different types of immunities we have passive as well as active immunities so with passive immunity this is when the body is exposed to antibodies that have been made by another individual such as a mother passing antibodies from her breast milk to her child and then we have active immunity and this is when the body produces its own antibodies in response to an infection active immunity is usually longer lasting than that passive immunity because at some point we no longer get that passive immunity right from the mother to the child but with active immunity we're always constantly being exposed to things that it is remembering and we're building antibodies against that so technically our active immunity is always going to last a little bit longer than our passive immunity so let's move on to our very last body system and that is the skeletal system so really what is the overall structure and function of this system well the skeletal system is made up of bones that are connected by joints and the bones are held together at those joints by ligaments so Bones come in four major types we have long short flat and irregular so to begin with our long bones these are the bones that are found on our arms and our legs including our humerus our femur ulna radius tibia as well as our fibula they are longer than they are wide and have shafts with two enlarged ends called the proximal and distal ends remember proximal is close to the body right close to the trunk and then distal is away distance away from the body away from the trunk next we have short bones and these are bones that are usually found on our wrists as well as our ankles and these bones usually include our carpals and our tarsals they are approximately equal in length as well as width so we have flat bones and these bones are usually found within our ribs our sternum our shoulder blades as well as our hip bones and these are usually thin and often curved and then lastly irregular bones these are the bones that are very irregular and are usually found within our spine and these include our vertebrae they have a variety of shapes and they're not symmetrical in any way is why they fit within the irregular bones category bones are made of several different types of tissues including compact spongy cankerless as well as trabecular so with compact bone this is the hard outer layer of bone that provides protection and support it makes up the shaft of long bones and the flat surfaces of other bones spongy bones is very porous it's lightweight bone it's found at the ends of long bones as well as vertebrae cankerless bones is a type of spongy bone that contains small little cavities there's just a whole bunch of them in there and then lastly trabecular bones are the type of spongy we bone that kind of has like a honeycomb like structure inside of them balls are also made up of Morrow which is a soft tissue that produces blood cells brittle bone diseases such as osteogenesis imperfecta results from a mutation in the gene that codes for collagen which is a protein that is made up of bone tissue this disease causes bones to be very fragile as well as break very easily and then lastly you know I'm all about the relationships between our body systems and we're going to discuss how the skeletal system has a relationship with the muscular system so the muscular system provides movement for that skeletal system and they must work together through communication with the nervous system the muscle connects to bones with tendons which is comprised of connective tissues so for example the bicep brachii is the muscle of the upper arm that attaches to the shoulder bone with tendons the bicep brachii contracts to lift the arm I hope that this information was helpful in understanding what you need to know for the human and Anatomy portion of the atits if you have any additional questions make sure that you leave them down below I love answering your questions head over to www.nursechung.com where there's additional resources on all topics and all things regarding the atits and as always I will see you in the next video bye