Overview
This lecture covers the origins of human settlement in the Americas, the cultures present before European contact, the reasons for and consequences of European exploration and colonization, key interactions among Native, European, and African peoples, and the transformations following 1492.
Human Migration and Early Cultures
- Humans originated in Africa and migrated to the Americas via a land bridge from Asia to Alaska during the last Ice Age.
- Populations in North and South America around 1492 equaled Europe, but neither knew of the other's existence.
- Early migrants were hunters of large mammals; as these animals went extinct, people adapted by developing agriculture.
- The "Three Sisters" crops (corn/maize, squash, beans) were unique to the Americas and key to Native farming.
- Gender roles became specialized: men hunted; women farmed, with some societies being matrilineal.
Native American Civilizations and Cultural Areas
- Major civilizations in Mesoamerica included the Olmec, Maya (noted for calendars/writing), and Aztec (warrior society, conquered by Spain).
- In North America, Mississippian mound builders built large earthworks; Cahokia was a major city.
- Varied adaptations: Arctic/Inuit peoples remained nomadic; Pacific Northwest and California natives relied on abundant wild resources.
- Native societies were diverse, with extensive trade networks but no concept of unified racial or cultural identity.
West African Societies before Contact
- West Africa was home to both large empires (e.g., Songhai with city of Timbuktu) and small kinship communities.
- Women played significant roles in agriculture and markets; societies were religiously and linguistically diverse.
- Slavery existed but was war/debt-based, often temporary, and not race-based or hereditary as it later became in the Americas.
- Portuguese established coastal trading posts, initially seeking gold but eventually prioritizing the slave trade.
Europe on the Eve of Exploration
- Europe was recovering from the Black Death and consolidating political power (e.g., unification of Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella).
- The Reformation (initiated by Martin Luther, furthered by John Calvin) fractured Catholic religious unity and fueled rivalry.
- Economic motives (e.g., spice trade, access to gold) drove exploration; advances in navigation (caravel ships, compass, astrolabe) enabled long sea voyages.
European Contact and Conquest
- Columbus' 1492 voyage, funded by Spain, resulted in lasting contact between Europe and the Americas; he believed he had reached Asia.
- Spanish conquistadors (e.g., Cortés, Pizarro) overthrew the Aztec and Inca empires, aided by European diseases and native rivals.
- Spanish colonial rule exploited indigenous labor through systems like encomienda and repartimiento.
The Columbian Exchange and Its Impact
- The Columbian Exchange transferred plants, animals, people, and diseases between Old and New Worlds, with devastating effects on native populations.
- New World crops (maize, potatoes, cacao) spread globally; Old World animals (horses, cattle) and diseases (smallpox, measles) transformed the Americas.
- Massive native population loss (up to 80 million deaths) resulted from contact.
Colonial Societies and Hierarchies
- Spanish America developed a racial hierarchy: Spanish-born, Creoles, mestizos, indigenous, Africans, and Asians.
- Catholicism was enforced; gender roles for women and land-use customs differed sharply from European norms.
- Bartolomé de las Casas advocated for native rights but suggested importing African slaves instead.
Other European Colonization
- Treaty of Tordesillas split South America between Spain and Portugal, explaining linguistic differences (Spanish vs. Portuguese in Brazil).
- French focused on fur trade, maintaining cooperative relations with natives in Canada; few French migrated.
- Dutch established New Amsterdam (later New York), practiced religious tolerance, and built trade-based colonies with diverse populations.
- Dutch and French colonies had different social structures, greater rights for women/slaves, but fewer settlers than the Spanish or English.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Bering Land Bridge — land connection once joining Asia and North America over which early humans migrated.
- Three Sisters — maize, squash, and beans; staple crops in Native American agriculture.
- Matrilineal — tracing descent through the mother's family line.
- Mesoamerica — region from central Mexico to Central America, home to advanced pre-Columbian civilizations.
- Reconquista — Spanish campaign to expel Muslims/Jews, completed in 1492.
- Reformation — 16th-century religious movement that split Western Christianity into Catholic and Protestant branches.
- Columbian Exchange — transatlantic transfer of plants, animals, peoples, and diseases after 1492.
- Encomienda System — Spanish system of granting colonists the right to indigenous labor in exchange for "protection."
- Repartimiento — labor system replacing encomienda, requiring annual labor from natives but recognizing some rights.
- Mestizo — person of mixed European and Native American ancestry.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Read Chapter 1: "A New World" in your textbook.
- Review the maps showing migration paths, Mesoamerican civilizations, and early trade networks.
- Study key terms for upcoming quizzes.