Comprehensive Study of Human Anatomy

Hello brilliant minds and future healthcare professionals. Welcome back to Nurse Chung, the hub of success, innovation, and knowledge. We're absolutely thrilled to partner with the renowned Smart Edition Academy to bring you the guide to mastering the human anatomy and physiology section of the test. Wondering why Smart Edition should be your choice? Well, that's simple. They are not just a study platform. They are a personalized roadmap to success. With a dynamic approach and learning, Smart Edition Academy promises an engaging and engaging experience. interactive, and vivid educational journey curated meticulously to cater to every aspirant's needs. Remember, your journey to success is just a click away with Smart Edition Academy. So hit that subscribe button, gear up your enthusiasm, and stay tuned for an incredible voyage of knowledge and accomplishment. As you may already know, the science section is a pivotal exam compromising of 44 questions, with a significant portion of that being 18 questions stemming from the human anatomy and physiology domain. This area is instrumental in showcasing your readiness for the fruitful career of healthcare. As we progress through this video, you're going to notice that there's a QR code on every slide. Feel free to scan it anytime to transport yourself to Smart Edition Academy's treasure trove of insights and deeper knowledge on the respective topics. It's your gateway to more comprehensive information and richer learning experience. Starting off with organization of the human body, we're going to venture into body cavities, the spaces within the body that houses vital organs. We have the thoracic cavity, which envelops the heart and the lungs. It's the central hub of our respiratory and cardiovascular systems. We have a little bit lower the abdominal cavity. This is the region that shelters organs like the stomach, liver, and intestines, and they play crucial roles in our digestive processes. Next, we have our cranial cavity. That's the fortress for our brains. It's the key center for our nervous system operations. Next, we have our spinal cavity, running along our backbone and this cavity encases our spinal cord and is a crucial pathway for neural communications. And then lastly we have our pelvic cavity way down there at the bottom and that's the basin at our lower end. It houses our reproductive organs and parts of our digestive and urinary systems. To navigate this fascinating territory we have to use some cardinal directions often referred to as anatomical terminologies. Let's acquaint ourselves with what's essential to know for the test. We have inferior and superior. These words help us say things like below, meaning inferior, and above, meaning superior. Like our knees are inferior to our hips, but superior to our ankles. Next, we have anterior or ventral and posterior or dorsal. These words say things like front, that's our anterior. or back, which is posterior. So for example, our nose is on the anterior side while our backbones are on the posterior side. Next we have proximal and distal. Imagine your hand is a tree. The part closer to the trunk of our body is proximal, right? And the part further away from our body, which is our fingers, would be distal. Next we have lateral and medial. These words help us say things that are closer to our sides. So closer to our side, this would be our lateral and closer to the midline would be our medial, right? So our thumbs are lateral to our fingers. And then lastly, we have superficial and deep. This is used to talk about things that are closer to the skin. So closer to the skin, that would be superficial, much more further inside that would be called deep, right? So our skin is superficial compared to our bones. And finally, to slice this intricate structure for a closer look. We use body planes. They are essential imaginary lines that divide the body into sections. Here are the primary ones that you need to know. We have the sagittal plane. That is a vertical plane that divides the body from left to right sections. We have the mid-sagittal plane. This is a very specific type of sagittal plane that splits the body into equal left and right halves. We have the coronal or frontal plane. This is another vertical plane that divides the body's anterior, that's our front, and posterior, that's our back, into sections. And then lastly, we have the transverse or horizontal plane. This is the only horizontal plane that slices the body from superior to inferior. When you're creating your study plan there's going to be additional information that you're going to want to include in there that's going to be important to know for the test such as anatomical position and terms. I've listed a couple of the common terms that you're going to find in this section on the exam so please feel free to pause the video and take pictures of the slides to help you with your studies. Now let's dive deep into the cardiovascular system. This is going to be really important for you to know on your test. At the core of our cardiovascular system is the heart. It's a dynamic and powerful organ about the size of a clenched fist, tirelessly working to pump life-giving blood throughout the body. It's positioned snugly between the lungs, and this remarkable organ has a meticulous structure that facilitates a ceaseless flow of blood. The heart is essentially a four-roomed house. hosting two atria and two ventricles. Our atria are situated in the upper half. You can think of them as the welcoming chambers, receiving blood returning to the heart. Think of the term atria as atrium or entrance hall of the house. This is where guests, also known as our blood, first arrive. The ventricles, on the other hand, are the powerhouse rooms, located in the lower half of the heart, where the blood is being pumped out to embark on its vital journey throughout the body or to the lungs. Connecting these rooms are doors called valves, which ensure a one-way flow of blood preventing any backward movement. Let's take a closer look at these vital doors. So first we have the tricuspid valve. This valve is the doorman between our right atrium and the right ventricle, ensuring a smooth passage of blood into that lower chamber. Tri hints at its structure, compromising of three leaflets or flaps. Next we have the pulmonary valve. Think of this as the exit door from the right ventricle leading the blood onto a pathway through our pulmonary artery to the lungs where they pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. Then we have our mitral or bicuspid valve. This is serving as the gateway between our left atrium and our left ventricle. This valve, as the name suggests, by consists of two flaps orchestrating a seamless flow of oxygen. flow into the heart's powerhouse chamber, which is our left ventricle. And then lastly, we have the aortic valve. This is that grand exit door stationed between the left ventricle where the rejuvenated oxygen-rich blood is propelled into the aorta, the main highway to distribute nourishment and oxygen to every nook and cranny of our body. One of the most important things that you're going to need to know for the test is blood flow through the heart and the system. So let's break down the blood's journey through these chambers in a step-by-step process. Now we're going to be starting with blood entering the heart, but just remember this is a continuous process. So there is no start or stop point when it comes to this system. So step one, entry through superior and inferior vena cava. Oxygen depleted blood from the body first enters the right atrium through two large veins called the superior and inferior vena cava. Picture these as... highway is bringing blood, or traffic if you're looking at the highway analogy, back home to the heart. Step two is our right atrium to our right ventricle. The blood then flows from that right atrium into our right ventricle, passing through the tricuspid valve. Remember, that's that one-way door that prevents backflow. Remember the term tri, it means three, hinting that there are three flaps that make up this particular valve. Step three, we have our journey to the lungs. So from our right ventricle, the blood is pumped through that pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery, which carries it to the lungs to pick up oxygen. That term pulmonary is associated with the lungs, and it's a good hit to remember when you're thinking about its function. Step four is oxygenation happening in the lungs. In the lungs, the blood gets oxygenated, meaning that it picks up oxygen and it releases carbon dioxide and other waste products. So picture this as a rest stop where the blood refreshes before it continues on in its next journey. Step five is it's going to return back to the heart. Our now oxygen rich blood is going to return to the heart through the pulmonary veins into our left atrium. Step six is going to be from our left atrium to our left ventricle. The oxygenated blood then moves from the left atrium to the left ventricle passing through the bicuspid or mitral valve. Remember bi indicates two, referencing that there are two flaps on this valve. It's another good handy memory cue when you're taking your tests. And then lastly is step seven. It's going to be distributed out to the rest of our body. Now when it finally gets to that left ventricle, the left ventricle is going to pump that oxygen-rich blood out to the body through the aortic valve. into the aorta, which is our main artery. Think of this as the stage for the grand exit, where the blood is dispatched to deliver oxygen and nutrients to various body tissues. Before we conclude, here's a quick note for all of you Advent learners. Your study journey shouldn't stop here. Dive deeper into the cardiovascular system by exploring additional crucial topics such as anatomy of blood, understanding blood grouping, and the various functions of blood, as well as the process of homeostasis. Equip yourself with comprehensive knowledge by exploring these topics in detail on the Smart Addition Academies course. Transitioning from the rhythmic beats of our heart, we're going to venture into the realm of the respiratory system. This is another critical network that ensures every breath we take infuses our body with life-giving oxygen. When you picture the respiratory system, think of a majestic tree. The trunk is our trachea. Our branches that go from the trunk are our two main bronchi. These divide further into smaller bronchioles, which could resemble twigs. Finally leading into our tiny sacs called the alveoli, which are pretty much like the leaves of our tree. This is where that essential exchange of gases takes place. Let's navigate through the tree of life from the top down, starting with our upper respiratory tract, the gateway into our respiratory system. It comprises of three things. Our nasal cavity, that's our primary air filter. It's equipped with hair and mucus attract... dust as well as microbes. Picture this as like the canopy of the tree filtering out that incoming air. Next we have the pharynx and this is a shared chamber for both food and air and it directs the air down to the correct path ensuring that it reaches the lungs safely because we don't want anything else getting in there that shouldn't be in there. Imagine this is that sturdy trunk directing the flow correctly down. And then lastly we have the larynx. This is also known as our voice box. It plays a dual role in aiding speech as well as preventing food from entering that respiratory tract. Think of this as like kind of a knot in the tree. It's a distinctive feature that ensures a smooth flow and functionality. Transitioning to the lower respiratory tract, we venture deeper where that vital gas exchange takes place. Again, this is made up of three main areas. We start with the trachea. This is our windpipe. It's a tube supported by rings of cartilage ensuring that that... That too remains open at all times. It really acts as that robust central stem of our tree. Then we have our bronchii and bronchioles. These are those branching arms that come off of our tree, guiding the air into smaller and finer pathways eventually reaching our alveoli. And then ending in our alveoli, picture these as those tiny, bustling little leaves where the real magic happens. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is what helps facilitate life with every breath that we take. So as we talked about, in the incredible labyrinth that is our respiratory system, that vital exchange takes place in the alveoli, those tiny sacs that are nestled way, way deep at the bottom of our lungs. Here, oxygen from the air that we breathe is absorbed into our bloodstream, supplying vital energy to every cell in our body. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide and waste products from cellular activities is expelled from the blood, releasing it into the external environment when we exhale. This seamless exchange is a cornerstone of life because it facilitates the continuous cycle of nourishment and cleansing, keeping our bodies functioning optimally. When we start looking at infections of the respiratory system, we tend to break them down into upper and lower respiratory tract infections. So with the upper respiratory tract infections, often known as the common cold and sinusitis, they're primarily affecting the nose and our throat. Imagine this as an infestation of our canopy or the upper branches of our tree. It's really going to be a localized disturbance affecting the system's initial entry points. On the other hand, when we're looking at lower respiratory tract infections, we're looking at the lungs and it can be much more severe, encompassing conditions like pneumonia. and bronchitis. Visualize this as a root infection where the foundational aspects of our tree, the core structures facilitating gas exchange, becomes compromised, necessitating more intensive care as well as attention. In addition to these topics, I'd like to point your attention to some additional vital topics that will help augment your understanding of the respiratory system. As you continue your learning journey, make sure that you're studying the mechanics of breathing, the functions of the respiratory system as well as the mechanics of respiration. Next, we transverse the remarkable pathway of food through our gastrointestinal system. This is an intricate network that works tirelessly to digest and assimilate the nutrients we need for our bodies. Our voyage begins at the oral cavity. This is where that first act of digestion takes place. Here, the food meets the mighty trio of our mouth, our tongue, and our teeth. This is what breaks down the food mechanically, making it easier for us to swallow. As we venture further down, the pharynx welcomes the food, acting as that crossroads directly to our esophagus. The esophagus is that muscular tube that serves as the grand highway for entrance into our stomach. Upon reaching the stomach, the stomach is that muscular sac that's used for churning all that food that we ate. The food undergoes a transformative process, breaking down further with the help of gastric juices, readying itself to enter the realms of our intestines. Our expedition advances into that small intestine. It's a winding territory where the magic of nutrient absorption takes place. Enzymes play a significant role here, facilitating the breakdown of food into much more simpler substances that can be absorbed. And then we have our large intestine that's responsible for reabsorbing water and electrolytes, transforming what remains into solid waste. And then our final destination is the journey to the rectum where the waste is ultimately stored until it exits the body. In addition to the digestive organs that we just discussed, there are various glands and additional organs that play pivotal roles in ensuring that the food is broken down efficiently as well as nutrients being absorbed optimally. So starting with our sublingual and submandibular salivary glands. They're situated in the oral cavity. These glands are the first to spring into action, secreting saliva-rich enzymes. The saliva initiates that process of chemical digestion right from the moment the food enters the mouth, breaking down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars. Then we have the powerhouse of enzyme production, which is our pancreas. It's nestled close to the stomach and it secretes a cocktail of enzymes into the small intestine, assisting in the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat. fats. It ensures that the food we consume is broken down into molecules small enough to be absorbed and utilized by our body. Stepping into the limelight next is the mighty liver, and that's our body's chemical processing plant. Apart from its various vital functions, in the realm of digestion, it produces bile, a crucial component that helps with the emulsification of fats, breaking them down into smaller droplets, thus making it easier for enzymes to act upon them. Last, but certainly not least, we have our gallbladder, and that's a small, vital organ nestled underneath our liver. It acts as a storage unit for the bile produced by the liver, and it releases it into the small intestine to aid in the digestion of fats. Together, these remarkable organs and glands create a symphony of processes that facilitate the smooth and efficient breakdown and absorption of nutrients, showcasing the marvel of our intricate digestive system. There will be additional topics that will help further the understanding of the gastrointestinal system that you should know, including accessory organs, digestion, and disorders of the digestive system. These topics are covered greatly in the Smart Edition education modules. Next, we venture into the intricate pathway of both the male and female reproductive tracts. We're going to start with the male reproductive tract that plays a critical role in human reproduction. So let's navigate each vital organ that understands this specific roles. So the journey begins in the testes. It's the primary male reproductive organs housed in the scrotum. The testes are essentially factories for sperm reproduction. continuously manufacturing sperm cells and male reproductive cells from puberty onwards. They also play a significant role in hormone reproduction, primarily testosterone, which governs male secondary sexual characteristics. As we move further along, we encounter the epididymis. It's a tightly coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored temporarily. This is where they gain that motility. Pregnancy is a critical feature of successful. fertilization. Next on our path are the vas deferens. It's a long muscular tube that transports that mature sperm from the epidermis to the urethra, where it's ultimately expelled during ejaculation. We also have the seminal vesicles, which are glands that produce a significant portion of the seminal fluid that's that nutrient-rich liquid that provides sperm with the energy that it needs to journey towards the egg. This fluid also contains substances that protect and nourish the sperm, facilitating their survival within the female reproductive tract. Next, we have that prostate gland. That's that walnut-sized structure that produces a fluid that mixes with that seminal fluid, enhancing sperm motility and mobility, helping with the neutralization of acidic environment inside the female reproductive system, creating a conducive environment for the sperm to survive. And then lastly, our pathway accumulates with the penis. It's that external organ that plays a pivotal role in the delivery of sperm. It consists of structures that fill with blood during arousal, facilitating an erection in a necessary condition in order to have sexual intercourse. The urethra running through the penis serves as that exit route for sperm, encapsulating that seminal fluid during ejaculation. Now that we understand the male reproductive tract, it only makes sense that we follow the female reproductive tract. which is a complex but beautifully designed system that also plays a critical role in human reproduction. We start with the ovaries, the reproductive powerhouses where the marvelous journey of life truly begins. Nestled within the pelvis, the ovaries are responsible for the production of eggs or ova, which is the female reproductive cells. Moreover, these incredible organs are the main source of female hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which govern the menstrual cycle and... influence numerous aspects of the female health and development. From here, the ova progresses to the fallopian tubes. They are delicate channels that serve as the meeting point for eggs and sperm. These tubes not only transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus, but also are the site where fertilization typically takes place, setting the stage for a potential development of new life. Next, we reach the uterus. That's that muscular organ with a nurturing disposition. It's here where the fertilized egg implants and develops into an embryo, eventually growing into the fetus. The uterus provides a safe and nurturing environment. It's rich in nutrients and protection for the growing baby during the gestational period. Further down that pathway, we have the vagina. And that's that muscular canal that connects the external genitals to the uterus. This versatile structure facilitates menstruation. and serves as a conduit for sperm during sexual intercourse, forms part of that birth canal during childbirth. Lastly, we arrive at the vulva. That's our external portion of the female genitalia. Compromising of several structures, including the labia and the clitoris, the vulva acts as a protective barrier and is the center of sexual arousal, playing a vital role in the reproductive and sexual health of women. And with that, we wrap up our journey through the female and male reproductive tract. There will be additional information that you're going to need to know for the ATITs, including reproduction as well as the development of that reproductive system. Let's take a closer look at our urinary system. It's an essential network for our bodies and is responsible for the waste elimination as well as maintaining bodily balance. So we start with our kidneys. Those are our two bean-shaped organs situated on either side of the spine. The kidneys have a vital role in filtering blood to remove waste and excess substances accumulating in the production of urine. Additionally, they're involved in the regulation of various bodily functions such as fluid and electrolyte balance, blood pressure control, and aiding in the creation of red blood cells. The urine produced in the kidneys is then transported to the bladder through the ureters. Those are our two tubes that ensure a one-way flow of urine, preventing any backflow from taking place that could potentially harm the kidneys. The ureters play a significant role in maintaining the system's health as well as the efficiency. Following the ureters, we have the bladder, and that is a flexible muscular organ tasked with storing urine until it is expelled from the body. The storage unit is able to hold urine for about several hours, offering us that voluntary control over the timing of urination. So it really does have a critical aspect within our daily functioning lives. In men, we find the prostate. We talked about that a little bit before. It's a gland position below the bladder encircling the urethra. Although it doesn't have a direct part in the urinary system, because of its location and function with the reproductive health, it can ultimately influence urinary function, making it a notable structure in this context. If it's, remember, if it's circling that urethra and it becomes enlarged, it's going to start to squeeze in that urethra, making it difficult for males to urinate. So it's really important structure when it comes to our urinary tract as well. And then the final stage in this process involves the urethra. It is a tube responsible for carrying urine from the bladder to our external opening, facilitating that removal of urine from the body. This structure varies slightly depending on males and females to suit the different reproductive anatomies. Let's take a moment to appreciate and zoom in on the nephron. It's an important part of our kidneys. These intricate units are central to kidney function, playing crucial roles in filtering our blood and maintaining our body's fluid balance. There are three processes that the nephrons go through when it comes to urine creation. They are glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Let us initiate the process of glomerular filtration. Position at the beginning of the nephron is the glomerulus. It's a network of tiny blood vessels surrounded by Bowman's capsule. As the blood flows through that particular part of the nephron, the water and waste materials are separated from the blood cells and larger proteins. This filtration process creates a fluid-filled filtrate, which contains substances like urea, glucose, and salts. As we move further along the nephron, we encounter tubular reabsorption. It's a vital process that occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule. Here, essential nutrients, waters, and electrolytes from the filtrate are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. This selective reabsorption ensures the necessary substances are retained by the body, maintaining a healthy equilibrium for the system. The next stage is tubular secretion. Predominantly taking place in that distal convoluted tubule, this process involves the active transport of substances such as hydrogen ions and potassium from the blood back into the filtrate. This crucial cell step helps regulate the pH of our bodies and eliminates additional waste products that were not filtered out by our glomerulus. The journey of the filtrate concludes in that collecting duct, where final adjustments are made to the concentration and composition of our urine before it exits the kidneys, ready to be transported down to our bladder for eventual excretion. So everything we talked about were really big concepts, and it's important that you know them for the tease. Some additional study topics that you may want to look into may be urine formation as well as urinalysis. I want to take a quick break to discuss Smart Addition Academy. Imagine having a powerhouse of resources at your fingertips. The Smart Addition Academy course offers a whooping eight practice tests to fine-tune your skills until you meet perfection. But that's not all. They also give you access to meticulously organized practice question banks segregated by topics to make the revision session. as targeted and as effective as possible. Wave goodbye to monotonous learning because you are stepping into a vibrant world of understanding with over 100 immersive videos, all in vivid color to make the learning journey not only insightful, but also visually stimulating. And for those of you who love a deep dive, Smart Edition has curated over 55 elaborate study lessons covering all the crucial sections that you're gonna need to know for the test. These lessons are your roadmap to achieving phenomenal scores, weaving through the intricacies of each topic with precision as well as clarity. Big thanks to Smart Edition Academy for sponsoring this video. Click the link below to access their full list of courses. And hey, if you enjoyed the video, give it a thumbs up, drop a comment of what you liked and what you would like to learn next. Hit that subscribe button for more. Moving on to our skeletal system, which plays a critical role when it comes to movement and protection. It comprises of over 200 bones. our skeletal system serves as multiple vital functions. First, it provides shape and support, allowing us to maintain our posture and stand upright. Additionally, our bones protect delicate organs such as our brain, our heart, and our lungs. They also serve as anchor points for muscles facilitating movement. Plus, within the marrow of our bones, red blood cells are produced. But did you also know that not all bones are created equal? Our skeletal system boasts a variety of bones, each with an intricate and unique structure and function. So let's start with our long bones. Long bones are those elongated bones, which mean that they are longer than they are wide, and are primarily found in our limbs. So examples of these bones can be our femur, our clavicle, our humerus, as well as our tibia. Their primary function is to provide strength, structure, and mobility. Then we have short bones. bones, which are more cube-shaped bones, meaning that they are the same width as their length, respectfully. They are primarily located in our wrists, our feet, and our ankles. Think of them as shock absorbers, offering support while allowing for smaller range of movements. Next up, we have flat bones, and these are thin, often curved bones like we see in our ribs, our sternum, and our skull. Their primary role is to provide vital organ protection and offer an anchorage point for muscles. Our body also houses irregular bones, which as the name suggests, have complex shapes. So you're going to find these in our spine as well as our hips. They serve various functions depending on where they are actually located. And then lastly, we have the sesamoid bones. They are small and round embedded with tendons. So the kneecap or patella is the prime example of this kind of bone. These bones protect tendons from wear and tear. Some additional study topics that you're going to want to look into are the axial and appendicular skeletons, as well as the ossification and bone remodeling. Now let's talk about the muscular system. That is what grants us the power to move, express, and even circulate blood. So we're made up of more than 600 muscles. The muscular system really is a marvel when you think about it. These muscles work in tandem, allowing us to perform activities ranging from delicate motions, like picking up a needle, to powerhouse movements, such as lifting weights. They also maintain our posture, they help us generate heat, and they make essential bodily functions possible. But just like our bones, not all muscles are the same. In fact, we categorize them into three main types based on their structure and their function. We start with cardiac muscle. This is that fascinating tissue found exclusively in our heart. It's characterized by its striated appearance. It contracts rhythmically and tirelessly to pump blood throughout our body. One significant thing to note is that the cardiac muscles are involuntary. This means they will operate without conscious thought. If we had to think about making our heart beat every single second, I think we'd be in trouble. Next we have the skeletal muscles. They attach primarily to bone and they are responsible for bone movements like walking, jumping, and lifting. These muscles are striated like cardiac muscles, but there's a twist. They are voluntary. We control these muscles consciously, choosing when to contract and relax them. So for example, deciding to raise your hand or dance. requires skeletal muscle action. And then lastly, we have smooth muscles. These are non-striated muscles that are found in the walls of our hollow internal structures, such as our stomach, our intestines, as well as our blood vessels. Their movements are involuntary, similar to cardiac muscles. They help propel food through the digestive tract, contract and expand our blood vessels, and perform a myriad of other essential functions without us even realizing it. So from the conscious flex of our arm to the unconscious contraction of our stomach during digestion, muscles are always at work, proving their versatility and importance in our daily lives. When you're studying for the ATITs, there's additional topics that you should familiarize yourself with when it comes to the system. And that includes anatomy of the muscle cell and coordinating movement. Let's look into our protective armor, the integumentary system. When you think about the body's first line of defense against external factors, it's not a knight in shining armor, but it's rather our skin. It's the primary component of the integumentary system. The integumentary system is not just about protection. It also regulates body temperature, provides sensory information, and plays a vital role in vitamin D synthesis. Let's delve deeper into the skin's architecture. It's structured into three main layers. We have the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer. Starting with the epidermis, that's our outermost layer. It's primarily made up of cells called keratinocytes, which produce a protein called keratin, which gives the skin its tough protective quality. Melatonocytes, responsible for pigment production, coloring of our skin, also offering us UV protection. The epidermis itself is made up of five sublayers. From the outermost moving inward, they are the stratum corneum, the stratum lucidum, the stratum granulosum, the stratum spinosum, and the stratum bacilli. Each of these have a major role ranging from protection to cell reproduction. First up, we have the stratum corneum. This is that outermost layer, and it's a tough barrier made mostly of dead flattened cells called corneocytes. These cells are constantly shed. and replaced from layers below. This layer acts as a protective shield against environmental factors such as water, light, and air. Next we encounter stratum lucidum. This translucent layer is typically found in the thickest parts of our skin, like the soles of our feet and the palms of our hands. It's packed with a clear protein called elitin, which later converts to keratin. Beneath this is the stratum granulosum, takes the center stage. Here, cells start to flatten and produce a lipid-rich substances that act as a water repellent sealant for our skin. It's crucial in preventing dehydration. The stratum spinosum follows often referred to as the spiny layer because of its appearance when you're looking at the cells under a microscope. It's a region of active cell division where keratinocytes receive their nourishment and begin their journey upwards. Last, but certainly not least, is the foundation of our epidermis, the stratum bacilli. This layer hosts the stem cells responsible for generating new keratinocytes. There's also where that melanocytes reside as well, producing that melanin pigment that gives our skin its color and offers protection against UV radiation. Directly beneath the dynamic layers of the epidermis, we have the robust and diverse realm of the dermis. This layer is thicker than the epidermis, is teeming with structures that give our skin its strength, elasticity, and ability to communicate with the environment. Among these structures are sweat glands. There are two primary types. We have the apocrine and the eccrine sweat glands. Let's start with the apocrine glands. These are found in specific areas like our armpits, around our nipples, and our groin. They become active during puberty and produce a thicker sweat, which when broken down by bacteria is responsible ultimately for body odor. On the other hand, our eccrine glands are our widespread sweat glands found almost everywhere on our body, essentially, especially I should say, on the palms and soles as well as our forehead. Their primary role is temperature regulation. By secreting sweat that evaporates off of our skin, they ultimately help us cool down. Moving along, The dermis also hosts sebaceous glands. They are often closely associated with hair follicles, and they secrete an oily substance called sebum. Sebum lubricates our skin and our hair, keeping it very soft and preventing it from drying out. Additionally, it provides a layer of waterproofing for our skin. These intricate components of the dermis work in concert, ensuring that our skin is not only protective and resilient, but it is also adaptive to the ever-changing environment that it faces on a daily basis. Finally, the subcutaneous layer. It's primarily composed of fat as well as connective tissue. And it acts as an insulator, helping us regulate temperature and serve as a cushion against external shocks. Some additional study topics that you may want to look into for the test will include anatomy of a muscle cell as well as coordinating movement. Another important system to know is our nervous system. Welcome to that intricate web of connections and communications that make up this system. The system serves as a command center for our body, governing everything from our thoughts as well as our movements. At its core, the neurological system is split into two main parts. The central nervous system, also known as the CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, also known as the PNS. The CNS consists of our brain, and our spinal cord which are nestled safely within the skull and the vertebral column. It is our main control center processing information and giving out orders. On the other hand, the PNS acts like the wires that connect the central control to the rest of the body. It carries out messages to and from the CNS. These messages travel via nerve fibers. Afferent fibers relay information from our body's sensors to the brain, while efferent fibers carry commands from the brain to the muscles and the organs. One of the commonly used mnemonics to differentiate between afferent and efferent is afferent is also called arriving, A for afferent, A for arriving, at the nervous system. Whereas efferent is exiting, E for efferent, E for exiting, from the central nervous system. So another way to think of it is sensory neurons are asking for attention, so they are afferent, and motor neurons are executing the action, also known as efferent. Remember, afferent fibers bring information to the central nervous system from sensory receptors, while efferent fibers send information out to effectors like muscles and glands. Breaking down the peripheral nervous system even further is dividing it into the somatic and autonomic systems. The somatic system governs voluntary movements, such as waving and jumping. It's all about that muscle control. Where the autonomic system, however, operates in the background, controlling involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion. But wait, there's another layer to it. It's split into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. When you think about the sympathetic division, picture yourself spotting a wild animal. Your heart races. your pupils dilate, and your adrenaline surges. This is that fight or flight system in action, preparing you to either confront or flee from that potential danger. It redirects blood flow towards muscles and increases heart and respiratory rates. Essentially, it's our body's rapid response team, ensuring that we're ready for immediate action. On the flip side of that, we have the parasympathetic division, which acts like the calm after the storm. Once that perceived threat is gone, it steps in, promoting a rest and digest environment. This division slows down our heart rate, stimulates digestion, and helps us conserve energy. Imagine it's like the caretaker that ensures our body gets the downtime and recuperation it needs after that very intense activity. Together, these two divisions ensure a balance letting our body dynamically respond to changing circumstances while also providing periods of rest and recovery. The human brain is truly an incredible, complex organ, central to every thought, action, and emotion that we experience. Let's break down its primary regions to understand their individual roles. better. So starting with the cerebellum that's located at the back of the brain. It is often referred to as the little brain due to its distinct appearance. The cerebellum plays a vital role in fine-tuning our motor movements, ensuring balance, coordination, as well as graceful movement. Picture a ballet dancer's precise moves or a pianist's agile fingers. The cerebellum ensures such activities are fluid and coordinated. Up next... Next we have the brain stem. This is the most primitive part of our brain, connecting the brain to the spinal cord. But don't let its size fool you. The brain stem is responsible for vital, life-sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Think of it as the body's autopilot, quietly regulating essential functions without our conscious input. Next up we have the cerebrum. This is the largest, most recognized part of the brain. This is where the real magic happens. It's responsible for those higher order functions like thinking, decision making, emotions, and voluntary movements. It's further divided into lobes that each have their own unique function. To begin, we have the frontal lobe. That's right behind your forehead. And it is the CEO of your brain. It's involved in processing high level cognitive skills, reasoning, concentration, motor skills. language, and functions as a control center for emotions. Next, we have the parietal lobe, a top of your head processing visual perception and sensory information such as touch, pain, and pressure. On the sides, we have the temporal lobes. They play a key role in organizing sounds and processing language that is heard by helping with memories, speech perception, and language skills. And then at the back, We have our occipital lobe. It solely is dedicated to processing visual information, translating what our eyes see into images that our brain can understand. Some additional study topics that you're going to want to look into for the ATITs is going to be neurons, the limbic system, anatomy of a neuron, nerve impulses, as well as synaptic transmissions. Diving into our internal communication powerhouse, we have the endocrine system, which consists of specific glands that produce and secrete hormones. These hormones aren't just chemical messengers, they're instructions, they're instructors that guide a plethora of processes within our body. First on our list is the pituitary gland, often referred to as the master gland. Located in the base of the brain, it doesn't just govern many other glands, but it also produces hormones. that regulate growth, blood pressure, certain functions of the sex organs, thyroid glands, metabolism, water, and osmolarity regulation of our kidneys, as well as temperature regulation. The thyroid gland, gracefully located in our neck, is essential for our metabolism, energy generation, and body temperature. It produces thyroid hormone, which ultimately regulates the body's metabolism and calcium balances. Near the thyroid, we have the parathyroid glands. They're four tiny glands with a colossal task. They produce the parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating calcium levels in our body, which is crucial for bone health. Then we have the thymus gland. Nestled behind our sternum, it is the immunity champion during our early years. They produce T-cells that fight off infections. Sitting like crowns on our kidneys, we have the adrenal glands. They reduce hormones that regulate metabolism, blood pressure, as well as stress response such as cortisol. Then we have the pancreas. We talked about that a little bit before. It's deep within our abdominal cavity and it wears multiple hats. It's essential for digestion and sugar regulation, but it's also essential for hormone, insulin, and glucagon generation. which work in tandem to help regulate blood sugar levels. In the realm of our reproduction, we have the ovaries. In females, not only do we produce eggs, but we also produce estrogen and progesterone, which are hormones that are vital in reproductive health, menstrual cycle, as well as pregnancy. And then lastly, we have the testes in males. On the other hand, the testes are going to produce testosterone, which is crucial in sperm production. as well as development of male secondary sexual characteristics. As we delve deeper into that hormonal web, we're going to find hormones that are unique in purpose as well as destination. First, we have the thyroid stimulating hormone, also known as TSH. And as the name suggests, it signals the thyroid gland to release this particular hormone. These thyroid hormones, in turn, regulate our metabolism, energy production, as well as our overall growth. Adrenocorticotropic hormone also known as ACTH, works like a motivator for the adrenal cortex, nudging it to release corticosteroids. These corticosteroids are pivotal in managing our response to stress, inflammation, and more. Next, we have melanocyte-stimulating hormone, also known as MSH. It's our body's pigment manager. By influencing melanocytes in our skin and our hair, it plays a role in determining our unique colorations as well as patterns. Turning to the reproductive domain, we have the luteinizing hormone LH and the follicle stimulating hormone FSH, which are two dynamic leaders. LH triggers ovulations in females and stimulates testosterone production in males. Concurrently, FSH oversees the maturation of egg cells in females and the production of sperm cells in males. Prolactin, on the other hand, plays a heartwarming role when it comes to new mothers. It governs the milk production in our mammary glands, ensuring that newborns receive the essential nutrition that they so desperately need. And last, but certainly not least, we have growth hormone, also known as GH, and this hormone wears multiple hats. Directly produced by the pituitary gland, it stimulates cell growth and regeneration, which translates to muscle and bone growth. So when you're thinking about physical growth or the healing of a fracture, you can thank growth hormone for its tireless work. Some additional study topics that you might find useful when you're creating your study plan for the endocrine system can include the functions of the endocrine system, receptors, hormones, and glands, as well as their secretions. We're going to take a look at our last system, that is the lymphatic system, also known as our immune system. It really is often considered the unsung hero of the body because it plays such a pivotal role in fluid balance, fat absorption, and most notably, your immunity. Picture it as a vast network of vessels, nodes, and organs working in the background, guarding our well-being. Let's take a closer look at the anatomy of the lymphatic system. At the heart of this system is lymph vessels. and they transport a fluid called lymph. This fluid carries away waste and toxins from our bodily tissues. Along this journey, that lymph is going to pass through lymph nodes. And these lymph nodes are tiny bean-shaped structures that filter harmful substances and contain immune cells ready to fight those infections. Major players in the system also include the spleen. That's our largest lymphatic organ. It's responsible for filtering our blood. And we have the thymus. We talked about that a little bit before. Those are those T cells that mature and they often become ready in our earlier years for combat. There are also two little things in the back of our throat. You may still have them, you may not. And that is our tonsils. They serve as the body's first line of defense against ingested and inhaled foreign invaders. Let's take a closer look at the types of immunity that we have. Immunity that's found in our body is that defense mechanism against pathogens, and it comes in various different forms. So we begin with natural passive immunity. This is like a mother's gift to her baby. It's a newborn receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta or the breast milk, offering temporary protection against some diseases. Think of it as a nature's initial protective shield. Then we have natural active immunity. This is the kind that you get when you're exposed to an illness. Ever wonder why you typically get chicken pox only once and you never see it again? After that first exposure, the body remembers that invader and knows how to defend against it if it tries to invade again. Next we have artificial passive immunity. So imagine a temporary shield against infections. This is achieved by injecting antibodies into the person from another source. So for example, if someone was to be exposed to rabies, they might receive a rabies immune globulin shot for immediate protection. That's our artificial passive immunity. And then lastly, we have artificial active immunity. This is where vaccines come into play. A vaccine introduces a weakened or inactive form of a pathogen or parts of a pathogen like a protein into the body. It's kind of like a rehearsal. The immune system practices its defense strategy. So when it comes into an encounter with that particular pathogen, it's ready to defend it. Every time you receive a vaccine, it's like training your lymphatic system to be more effective in recognizing and neutralizing threats. So in conclusion, the lymphatic system in and of itself is an expansive network. It operates like a silent guardian. From filtering out toxins to mastering immunity with the help of vaccinations, it ensures that we remain resilient against an ever-evolving world of pathogens. Some additional topics that you might want to make note of is the immune system itself and its responses, as well as immune disorders. Wow, we've covered a lot today. From our bones to our hormones, big thanks to Smart Edition Academy for sponsoring this video and teaming up with us to deep dive into the anatomy and physiology portion of the ATITs. If you found this content intriguing, there's so much more to learn on Smart Edition Academy's course. Click the link below to access their full list of courses. And hey, if you enjoyed the video, give it a thumbs up, drop a comment of what you liked and what you would like to learn next, hit that subscribe button for more. Remember, every bit of knowledge brings you one step closer. closer to understanding the amazing world within you. Thanks for watching and I'll catch you in the next video. Bye!

Well, that's simple. They are not just a study platform. They are a personalized roadmap to success.

With a dynamic approach and learning, Smart Edition Academy promises an engaging and engaging experience. interactive, and vivid educational journey curated meticulously to cater to every aspirant's needs. Remember, your journey to success is just a click away with Smart Edition Academy.

So hit that subscribe button, gear up your enthusiasm, and stay tuned for an incredible voyage of knowledge and accomplishment. As you may already know, the science section is a pivotal exam compromising of 44 questions, with a significant portion of that being 18 questions stemming from the human anatomy and physiology domain. This area is instrumental in showcasing your readiness for the fruitful career of healthcare.

As we progress through this video, you're going to notice that there's a QR code on every slide. Feel free to scan it anytime to transport yourself to Smart Edition Academy's treasure trove of insights and deeper knowledge on the respective topics. It's your gateway to more comprehensive information and richer learning experience. Starting off with organization of the human body, we're going to venture into body cavities, the spaces within the body that houses vital organs.

We have the thoracic cavity, which envelops the heart and the lungs. It's the central hub of our respiratory and cardiovascular systems. We have a little bit lower the abdominal cavity. This is the region that shelters organs like the stomach, liver, and intestines, and they play crucial roles in our digestive processes. Next, we have our cranial cavity.

That's the fortress for our brains. It's the key center for our nervous system operations. Next, we have our spinal cavity, running along our backbone and this cavity encases our spinal cord and is a crucial pathway for neural communications. And then lastly we have our pelvic cavity way down there at the bottom and that's the basin at our lower end. It houses our reproductive organs and parts of our digestive and urinary systems.

To navigate this fascinating territory we have to use some cardinal directions often referred to as anatomical terminologies. Let's acquaint ourselves with what's essential to know for the test. We have inferior and superior.

These words help us say things like below, meaning inferior, and above, meaning superior. Like our knees are inferior to our hips, but superior to our ankles. Next, we have anterior or ventral and posterior or dorsal. These words say things like front, that's our anterior. or back, which is posterior.

So for example, our nose is on the anterior side while our backbones are on the posterior side. Next we have proximal and distal. Imagine your hand is a tree. The part closer to the trunk of our body is proximal, right? And the part further away from our body, which is our fingers, would be distal.

Next we have lateral and medial. These words help us say things that are closer to our sides. So closer to our side, this would be our lateral and closer to the midline would be our medial, right? So our thumbs are lateral to our fingers. And then lastly, we have superficial and deep.

This is used to talk about things that are closer to the skin. So closer to the skin, that would be superficial, much more further inside that would be called deep, right? So our skin is superficial compared to our bones.

And finally, to slice this intricate structure for a closer look. We use body planes. They are essential imaginary lines that divide the body into sections. Here are the primary ones that you need to know.

We have the sagittal plane. That is a vertical plane that divides the body from left to right sections. We have the mid-sagittal plane. This is a very specific type of sagittal plane that splits the body into equal left and right halves.

We have the coronal or frontal plane. This is another vertical plane that divides the body's anterior, that's our front, and posterior, that's our back, into sections. And then lastly, we have the transverse or horizontal plane. This is the only horizontal plane that slices the body from superior to inferior.

When you're creating your study plan there's going to be additional information that you're going to want to include in there that's going to be important to know for the test such as anatomical position and terms. I've listed a couple of the common terms that you're going to find in this section on the exam so please feel free to pause the video and take pictures of the slides to help you with your studies. Now let's dive deep into the cardiovascular system. This is going to be really important for you to know on your test.

At the core of our cardiovascular system is the heart. It's a dynamic and powerful organ about the size of a clenched fist, tirelessly working to pump life-giving blood throughout the body. It's positioned snugly between the lungs, and this remarkable organ has a meticulous structure that facilitates a ceaseless flow of blood. The heart is essentially a four-roomed house. hosting two atria and two ventricles.

Our atria are situated in the upper half. You can think of them as the welcoming chambers, receiving blood returning to the heart. Think of the term atria as atrium or entrance hall of the house.

This is where guests, also known as our blood, first arrive. The ventricles, on the other hand, are the powerhouse rooms, located in the lower half of the heart, where the blood is being pumped out to embark on its vital journey throughout the body or to the lungs. Connecting these rooms are doors called valves, which ensure a one-way flow of blood preventing any backward movement.

Let's take a closer look at these vital doors. So first we have the tricuspid valve. This valve is the doorman between our right atrium and the right ventricle, ensuring a smooth passage of blood into that lower chamber. Tri hints at its structure, compromising of three leaflets or flaps.

Next we have the pulmonary valve. Think of this as the exit door from the right ventricle leading the blood onto a pathway through our pulmonary artery to the lungs where they pick up a fresh supply of oxygen. Then we have our mitral or bicuspid valve.

This is serving as the gateway between our left atrium and our left ventricle. This valve, as the name suggests, by consists of two flaps orchestrating a seamless flow of oxygen. flow into the heart's powerhouse chamber, which is our left ventricle.

And then lastly, we have the aortic valve. This is that grand exit door stationed between the left ventricle where the rejuvenated oxygen-rich blood is propelled into the aorta, the main highway to distribute nourishment and oxygen to every nook and cranny of our body. One of the most important things that you're going to need to know for the test is blood flow through the heart and the system. So let's break down the blood's journey through these chambers in a step-by-step process.

Now we're going to be starting with blood entering the heart, but just remember this is a continuous process. So there is no start or stop point when it comes to this system. So step one, entry through superior and inferior vena cava.

Oxygen depleted blood from the body first enters the right atrium through two large veins called the superior and inferior vena cava. Picture these as... highway is bringing blood, or traffic if you're looking at the highway analogy, back home to the heart. Step two is our right atrium to our right ventricle.

The blood then flows from that right atrium into our right ventricle, passing through the tricuspid valve. Remember, that's that one-way door that prevents backflow. Remember the term tri, it means three, hinting that there are three flaps that make up this particular valve. Step three, we have our journey to the lungs. So from our right ventricle, the blood is pumped through that pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery, which carries it to the lungs to pick up oxygen.

That term pulmonary is associated with the lungs, and it's a good hit to remember when you're thinking about its function. Step four is oxygenation happening in the lungs. In the lungs, the blood gets oxygenated, meaning that it picks up oxygen and it releases carbon dioxide and other waste products.

So picture this as a rest stop where the blood refreshes before it continues on in its next journey. Step five is it's going to return back to the heart. Our now oxygen rich blood is going to return to the heart through the pulmonary veins into our left atrium. Step six is going to be from our left atrium to our left ventricle.

The oxygenated blood then moves from the left atrium to the left ventricle passing through the bicuspid or mitral valve. Remember bi indicates two, referencing that there are two flaps on this valve. It's another good handy memory cue when you're taking your tests.

And then lastly is step seven. It's going to be distributed out to the rest of our body. Now when it finally gets to that left ventricle, the left ventricle is going to pump that oxygen-rich blood out to the body through the aortic valve.

into the aorta, which is our main artery. Think of this as the stage for the grand exit, where the blood is dispatched to deliver oxygen and nutrients to various body tissues. Before we conclude, here's a quick note for all of you Advent learners. Your study journey shouldn't stop here.

Dive deeper into the cardiovascular system by exploring additional crucial topics such as anatomy of blood, understanding blood grouping, and the various functions of blood, as well as the process of homeostasis. Equip yourself with comprehensive knowledge by exploring these topics in detail on the Smart Addition Academies course. Transitioning from the rhythmic beats of our heart, we're going to venture into the realm of the respiratory system. This is another critical network that ensures every breath we take infuses our body with life-giving oxygen. When you picture the respiratory system, think of a majestic tree.

The trunk is our trachea. Our branches that go from the trunk are our two main bronchi. These divide further into smaller bronchioles, which could resemble twigs.

Finally leading into our tiny sacs called the alveoli, which are pretty much like the leaves of our tree. This is where that essential exchange of gases takes place. Let's navigate through the tree of life from the top down, starting with our upper respiratory tract, the gateway into our respiratory system.

It comprises of three things. Our nasal cavity, that's our primary air filter. It's equipped with hair and mucus attract... dust as well as microbes. Picture this as like the canopy of the tree filtering out that incoming air.

Next we have the pharynx and this is a shared chamber for both food and air and it directs the air down to the correct path ensuring that it reaches the lungs safely because we don't want anything else getting in there that shouldn't be in there. Imagine this is that sturdy trunk directing the flow correctly down. And then lastly we have the larynx. This is also known as our voice box.

It plays a dual role in aiding speech as well as preventing food from entering that respiratory tract. Think of this as like kind of a knot in the tree. It's a distinctive feature that ensures a smooth flow and functionality.

Transitioning to the lower respiratory tract, we venture deeper where that vital gas exchange takes place. Again, this is made up of three main areas. We start with the trachea.

This is our windpipe. It's a tube supported by rings of cartilage ensuring that that... That too remains open at all times.

It really acts as that robust central stem of our tree. Then we have our bronchii and bronchioles. These are those branching arms that come off of our tree, guiding the air into smaller and finer pathways eventually reaching our alveoli. And then ending in our alveoli, picture these as those tiny, bustling little leaves where the real magic happens.

The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide is what helps facilitate life with every breath that we take. So as we talked about, in the incredible labyrinth that is our respiratory system, that vital exchange takes place in the alveoli, those tiny sacs that are nestled way, way deep at the bottom of our lungs. Here, oxygen from the air that we breathe is absorbed into our bloodstream, supplying vital energy to every cell in our body. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide and waste products from cellular activities is expelled from the blood, releasing it into the external environment when we exhale. This seamless exchange is a cornerstone of life because it facilitates the continuous cycle of nourishment and cleansing, keeping our bodies functioning optimally.

When we start looking at infections of the respiratory system, we tend to break them down into upper and lower respiratory tract infections. So with the upper respiratory tract infections, often known as the common cold and sinusitis, they're primarily affecting the nose and our throat. Imagine this as an infestation of our canopy or the upper branches of our tree.

It's really going to be a localized disturbance affecting the system's initial entry points. On the other hand, when we're looking at lower respiratory tract infections, we're looking at the lungs and it can be much more severe, encompassing conditions like pneumonia. and bronchitis.

Visualize this as a root infection where the foundational aspects of our tree, the core structures facilitating gas exchange, becomes compromised, necessitating more intensive care as well as attention. In addition to these topics, I'd like to point your attention to some additional vital topics that will help augment your understanding of the respiratory system. As you continue your learning journey, make sure that you're studying the mechanics of breathing, the functions of the respiratory system as well as the mechanics of respiration.

Next, we transverse the remarkable pathway of food through our gastrointestinal system. This is an intricate network that works tirelessly to digest and assimilate the nutrients we need for our bodies. Our voyage begins at the oral cavity.

This is where that first act of digestion takes place. Here, the food meets the mighty trio of our mouth, our tongue, and our teeth. This is what breaks down the food mechanically, making it easier for us to swallow. As we venture further down, the pharynx welcomes the food, acting as that crossroads directly to our esophagus. The esophagus is that muscular tube that serves as the grand highway for entrance into our stomach.

Upon reaching the stomach, the stomach is that muscular sac that's used for churning all that food that we ate. The food undergoes a transformative process, breaking down further with the help of gastric juices, readying itself to enter the realms of our intestines. Our expedition advances into that small intestine.

It's a winding territory where the magic of nutrient absorption takes place. Enzymes play a significant role here, facilitating the breakdown of food into much more simpler substances that can be absorbed. And then we have our large intestine that's responsible for reabsorbing water and electrolytes, transforming what remains into solid waste. And then our final destination is the journey to the rectum where the waste is ultimately stored until it exits the body. In addition to the digestive organs that we just discussed, there are various glands and additional organs that play pivotal roles in ensuring that the food is broken down efficiently as well as nutrients being absorbed optimally.

So starting with our sublingual and submandibular salivary glands. They're situated in the oral cavity. These glands are the first to spring into action, secreting saliva-rich enzymes. The saliva initiates that process of chemical digestion right from the moment the food enters the mouth, breaking down complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars.

Then we have the powerhouse of enzyme production, which is our pancreas. It's nestled close to the stomach and it secretes a cocktail of enzymes into the small intestine, assisting in the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fat. fats.

It ensures that the food we consume is broken down into molecules small enough to be absorbed and utilized by our body. Stepping into the limelight next is the mighty liver, and that's our body's chemical processing plant. Apart from its various vital functions, in the realm of digestion, it produces bile, a crucial component that helps with the emulsification of fats, breaking them down into smaller droplets, thus making it easier for enzymes to act upon them.

Last, but certainly not least, we have our gallbladder, and that's a small, vital organ nestled underneath our liver. It acts as a storage unit for the bile produced by the liver, and it releases it into the small intestine to aid in the digestion of fats. Together, these remarkable organs and glands create a symphony of processes that facilitate the smooth and efficient breakdown and absorption of nutrients, showcasing the marvel of our intricate digestive system. There will be additional topics that will help further the understanding of the gastrointestinal system that you should know, including accessory organs, digestion, and disorders of the digestive system. These topics are covered greatly in the Smart Edition education modules.

Next, we venture into the intricate pathway of both the male and female reproductive tracts. We're going to start with the male reproductive tract that plays a critical role in human reproduction. So let's navigate each vital organ that understands this specific roles.

So the journey begins in the testes. It's the primary male reproductive organs housed in the scrotum. The testes are essentially factories for sperm reproduction.

continuously manufacturing sperm cells and male reproductive cells from puberty onwards. They also play a significant role in hormone reproduction, primarily testosterone, which governs male secondary sexual characteristics. As we move further along, we encounter the epididymis. It's a tightly coiled tube where sperm mature and are stored temporarily. This is where they gain that motility.

Pregnancy is a critical feature of successful. fertilization. Next on our path are the vas deferens.

It's a long muscular tube that transports that mature sperm from the epidermis to the urethra, where it's ultimately expelled during ejaculation. We also have the seminal vesicles, which are glands that produce a significant portion of the seminal fluid that's that nutrient-rich liquid that provides sperm with the energy that it needs to journey towards the egg. This fluid also contains substances that protect and nourish the sperm, facilitating their survival within the female reproductive tract. Next, we have that prostate gland.

That's that walnut-sized structure that produces a fluid that mixes with that seminal fluid, enhancing sperm motility and mobility, helping with the neutralization of acidic environment inside the female reproductive system, creating a conducive environment for the sperm to survive. And then lastly, our pathway accumulates with the penis. It's that external organ that plays a pivotal role in the delivery of sperm. It consists of structures that fill with blood during arousal, facilitating an erection in a necessary condition in order to have sexual intercourse.

The urethra running through the penis serves as that exit route for sperm, encapsulating that seminal fluid during ejaculation. Now that we understand the male reproductive tract, it only makes sense that we follow the female reproductive tract. which is a complex but beautifully designed system that also plays a critical role in human reproduction.

We start with the ovaries, the reproductive powerhouses where the marvelous journey of life truly begins. Nestled within the pelvis, the ovaries are responsible for the production of eggs or ova, which is the female reproductive cells. Moreover, these incredible organs are the main source of female hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which govern the menstrual cycle and...

influence numerous aspects of the female health and development. From here, the ova progresses to the fallopian tubes. They are delicate channels that serve as the meeting point for eggs and sperm.

These tubes not only transport ova from the ovaries to the uterus, but also are the site where fertilization typically takes place, setting the stage for a potential development of new life. Next, we reach the uterus. That's that muscular organ with a nurturing disposition. It's here where the fertilized egg implants and develops into an embryo, eventually growing into the fetus. The uterus provides a safe and nurturing environment.

It's rich in nutrients and protection for the growing baby during the gestational period. Further down that pathway, we have the vagina. And that's that muscular canal that connects the external genitals to the uterus. This versatile structure facilitates menstruation.

and serves as a conduit for sperm during sexual intercourse, forms part of that birth canal during childbirth. Lastly, we arrive at the vulva. That's our external portion of the female genitalia. Compromising of several structures, including the labia and the clitoris, the vulva acts as a protective barrier and is the center of sexual arousal, playing a vital role in the reproductive and sexual health of women.

And with that, we wrap up our journey through the female and male reproductive tract. There will be additional information that you're going to need to know for the ATITs, including reproduction as well as the development of that reproductive system. Let's take a closer look at our urinary system. It's an essential network for our bodies and is responsible for the waste elimination as well as maintaining bodily balance. So we start with our kidneys.

Those are our two bean-shaped organs situated on either side of the spine. The kidneys have a vital role in filtering blood to remove waste and excess substances accumulating in the production of urine. Additionally, they're involved in the regulation of various bodily functions such as fluid and electrolyte balance, blood pressure control, and aiding in the creation of red blood cells. The urine produced in the kidneys is then transported to the bladder through the ureters.

Those are our two tubes that ensure a one-way flow of urine, preventing any backflow from taking place that could potentially harm the kidneys. The ureters play a significant role in maintaining the system's health as well as the efficiency. Following the ureters, we have the bladder, and that is a flexible muscular organ tasked with storing urine until it is expelled from the body.

The storage unit is able to hold urine for about several hours, offering us that voluntary control over the timing of urination. So it really does have a critical aspect within our daily functioning lives. In men, we find the prostate.

We talked about that a little bit before. It's a gland position below the bladder encircling the urethra. Although it doesn't have a direct part in the urinary system, because of its location and function with the reproductive health, it can ultimately influence urinary function, making it a notable structure in this context.

If it's, remember, if it's circling that urethra and it becomes enlarged, it's going to start to squeeze in that urethra, making it difficult for males to urinate. So it's really important structure when it comes to our urinary tract as well. And then the final stage in this process involves the urethra.

It is a tube responsible for carrying urine from the bladder to our external opening, facilitating that removal of urine from the body. This structure varies slightly depending on males and females to suit the different reproductive anatomies. Let's take a moment to appreciate and zoom in on the nephron. It's an important part of our kidneys. These intricate units are central to kidney function, playing crucial roles in filtering our blood and maintaining our body's fluid balance.

There are three processes that the nephrons go through when it comes to urine creation. They are glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. Let us initiate the process of glomerular filtration. Position at the beginning of the nephron is the glomerulus. It's a network of tiny blood vessels surrounded by Bowman's capsule.

As the blood flows through that particular part of the nephron, the water and waste materials are separated from the blood cells and larger proteins. This filtration process creates a fluid-filled filtrate, which contains substances like urea, glucose, and salts. As we move further along the nephron, we encounter tubular reabsorption. It's a vital process that occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule. Here, essential nutrients, waters, and electrolytes from the filtrate are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream.

This selective reabsorption ensures the necessary substances are retained by the body, maintaining a healthy equilibrium for the system. The next stage is tubular secretion. Predominantly taking place in that distal convoluted tubule, this process involves the active transport of substances such as hydrogen ions and potassium from the blood back into the filtrate.

This crucial cell step helps regulate the pH of our bodies and eliminates additional waste products that were not filtered out by our glomerulus. The journey of the filtrate concludes in that collecting duct, where final adjustments are made to the concentration and composition of our urine before it exits the kidneys, ready to be transported down to our bladder for eventual excretion. So everything we talked about were really big concepts, and it's important that you know them for the tease. Some additional study topics that you may want to look into may be urine formation as well as urinalysis. I want to take a quick break to discuss Smart Addition Academy.

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These lessons are your roadmap to achieving phenomenal scores, weaving through the intricacies of each topic with precision as well as clarity. Big thanks to Smart Edition Academy for sponsoring this video. Click the link below to access their full list of courses.

And hey, if you enjoyed the video, give it a thumbs up, drop a comment of what you liked and what you would like to learn next. Hit that subscribe button for more. Moving on to our skeletal system, which plays a critical role when it comes to movement and protection.

It comprises of over 200 bones. our skeletal system serves as multiple vital functions. First, it provides shape and support, allowing us to maintain our posture and stand upright.

Additionally, our bones protect delicate organs such as our brain, our heart, and our lungs. They also serve as anchor points for muscles facilitating movement. Plus, within the marrow of our bones, red blood cells are produced. But did you also know that not all bones are created equal?

Our skeletal system boasts a variety of bones, each with an intricate and unique structure and function. So let's start with our long bones. Long bones are those elongated bones, which mean that they are longer than they are wide, and are primarily found in our limbs.

So examples of these bones can be our femur, our clavicle, our humerus, as well as our tibia. Their primary function is to provide strength, structure, and mobility. Then we have short bones. bones, which are more cube-shaped bones, meaning that they are the same width as their length, respectfully. They are primarily located in our wrists, our feet, and our ankles.

Think of them as shock absorbers, offering support while allowing for smaller range of movements. Next up, we have flat bones, and these are thin, often curved bones like we see in our ribs, our sternum, and our skull. Their primary role is to provide vital organ protection and offer an anchorage point for muscles. Our body also houses irregular bones, which as the name suggests, have complex shapes. So you're going to find these in our spine as well as our hips.

They serve various functions depending on where they are actually located. And then lastly, we have the sesamoid bones. They are small and round embedded with tendons. So the kneecap or patella is the prime example of this kind of bone.

These bones protect tendons from wear and tear. Some additional study topics that you're going to want to look into are the axial and appendicular skeletons, as well as the ossification and bone remodeling. Now let's talk about the muscular system.

That is what grants us the power to move, express, and even circulate blood. So we're made up of more than 600 muscles. The muscular system really is a marvel when you think about it.

These muscles work in tandem, allowing us to perform activities ranging from delicate motions, like picking up a needle, to powerhouse movements, such as lifting weights. They also maintain our posture, they help us generate heat, and they make essential bodily functions possible. But just like our bones, not all muscles are the same. In fact, we categorize them into three main types based on their structure and their function. We start with cardiac muscle.

This is that fascinating tissue found exclusively in our heart. It's characterized by its striated appearance. It contracts rhythmically and tirelessly to pump blood throughout our body. One significant thing to note is that the cardiac muscles are involuntary. This means they will operate without conscious thought.

If we had to think about making our heart beat every single second, I think we'd be in trouble. Next we have the skeletal muscles. They attach primarily to bone and they are responsible for bone movements like walking, jumping, and lifting. These muscles are striated like cardiac muscles, but there's a twist.

They are voluntary. We control these muscles consciously, choosing when to contract and relax them. So for example, deciding to raise your hand or dance. requires skeletal muscle action. And then lastly, we have smooth muscles.

These are non-striated muscles that are found in the walls of our hollow internal structures, such as our stomach, our intestines, as well as our blood vessels. Their movements are involuntary, similar to cardiac muscles. They help propel food through the digestive tract, contract and expand our blood vessels, and perform a myriad of other essential functions without us even realizing it. So from the conscious flex of our arm to the unconscious contraction of our stomach during digestion, muscles are always at work, proving their versatility and importance in our daily lives.

When you're studying for the ATITs, there's additional topics that you should familiarize yourself with when it comes to the system. And that includes anatomy of the muscle cell and coordinating movement. Let's look into our protective armor, the integumentary system.

When you think about the body's first line of defense against external factors, it's not a knight in shining armor, but it's rather our skin. It's the primary component of the integumentary system. The integumentary system is not just about protection.

It also regulates body temperature, provides sensory information, and plays a vital role in vitamin D synthesis. Let's delve deeper into the skin's architecture. It's structured into three main layers. We have the epidermis, the dermis, and the subcutaneous layer.

Starting with the epidermis, that's our outermost layer. It's primarily made up of cells called keratinocytes, which produce a protein called keratin, which gives the skin its tough protective quality. Melatonocytes, responsible for pigment production, coloring of our skin, also offering us UV protection. The epidermis itself is made up of five sublayers.

From the outermost moving inward, they are the stratum corneum, the stratum lucidum, the stratum granulosum, the stratum spinosum, and the stratum bacilli. Each of these have a major role ranging from protection to cell reproduction. First up, we have the stratum corneum. This is that outermost layer, and it's a tough barrier made mostly of dead flattened cells called corneocytes.

These cells are constantly shed. and replaced from layers below. This layer acts as a protective shield against environmental factors such as water, light, and air. Next we encounter stratum lucidum. This translucent layer is typically found in the thickest parts of our skin, like the soles of our feet and the palms of our hands.

It's packed with a clear protein called elitin, which later converts to keratin. Beneath this is the stratum granulosum, takes the center stage. Here, cells start to flatten and produce a lipid-rich substances that act as a water repellent sealant for our skin. It's crucial in preventing dehydration. The stratum spinosum follows often referred to as the spiny layer because of its appearance when you're looking at the cells under a microscope.

It's a region of active cell division where keratinocytes receive their nourishment and begin their journey upwards. Last, but certainly not least, is the foundation of our epidermis, the stratum bacilli. This layer hosts the stem cells responsible for generating new keratinocytes.

There's also where that melanocytes reside as well, producing that melanin pigment that gives our skin its color and offers protection against UV radiation. Directly beneath the dynamic layers of the epidermis, we have the robust and diverse realm of the dermis. This layer is thicker than the epidermis, is teeming with structures that give our skin its strength, elasticity, and ability to communicate with the environment. Among these structures are sweat glands. There are two primary types.

We have the apocrine and the eccrine sweat glands. Let's start with the apocrine glands. These are found in specific areas like our armpits, around our nipples, and our groin.

They become active during puberty and produce a thicker sweat, which when broken down by bacteria is responsible ultimately for body odor. On the other hand, our eccrine glands are our widespread sweat glands found almost everywhere on our body, essentially, especially I should say, on the palms and soles as well as our forehead. Their primary role is temperature regulation. By secreting sweat that evaporates off of our skin, they ultimately help us cool down.

Moving along, The dermis also hosts sebaceous glands. They are often closely associated with hair follicles, and they secrete an oily substance called sebum. Sebum lubricates our skin and our hair, keeping it very soft and preventing it from drying out. Additionally, it provides a layer of waterproofing for our skin.

These intricate components of the dermis work in concert, ensuring that our skin is not only protective and resilient, but it is also adaptive to the ever-changing environment that it faces on a daily basis. Finally, the subcutaneous layer. It's primarily composed of fat as well as connective tissue. And it acts as an insulator, helping us regulate temperature and serve as a cushion against external shocks. Some additional study topics that you may want to look into for the test will include anatomy of a muscle cell as well as coordinating movement.

Another important system to know is our nervous system. Welcome to that intricate web of connections and communications that make up this system. The system serves as a command center for our body, governing everything from our thoughts as well as our movements.

At its core, the neurological system is split into two main parts. The central nervous system, also known as the CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, also known as the PNS. The CNS consists of our brain, and our spinal cord which are nestled safely within the skull and the vertebral column.

It is our main control center processing information and giving out orders. On the other hand, the PNS acts like the wires that connect the central control to the rest of the body. It carries out messages to and from the CNS. These messages travel via nerve fibers. Afferent fibers relay information from our body's sensors to the brain, while efferent fibers carry commands from the brain to the muscles and the organs.

One of the commonly used mnemonics to differentiate between afferent and efferent is afferent is also called arriving, A for afferent, A for arriving, at the nervous system. Whereas efferent is exiting, E for efferent, E for exiting, from the central nervous system. So another way to think of it is sensory neurons are asking for attention, so they are afferent, and motor neurons are executing the action, also known as efferent. Remember, afferent fibers bring information to the central nervous system from sensory receptors, while efferent fibers send information out to effectors like muscles and glands. Breaking down the peripheral nervous system even further is dividing it into the somatic and autonomic systems.

The somatic system governs voluntary movements, such as waving and jumping. It's all about that muscle control. Where the autonomic system, however, operates in the background, controlling involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion.

But wait, there's another layer to it. It's split into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. When you think about the sympathetic division, picture yourself spotting a wild animal. Your heart races. your pupils dilate, and your adrenaline surges.

This is that fight or flight system in action, preparing you to either confront or flee from that potential danger. It redirects blood flow towards muscles and increases heart and respiratory rates. Essentially, it's our body's rapid response team, ensuring that we're ready for immediate action. On the flip side of that, we have the parasympathetic division, which acts like the calm after the storm.

Once that perceived threat is gone, it steps in, promoting a rest and digest environment. This division slows down our heart rate, stimulates digestion, and helps us conserve energy. Imagine it's like the caretaker that ensures our body gets the downtime and recuperation it needs after that very intense activity.

Together, these two divisions ensure a balance letting our body dynamically respond to changing circumstances while also providing periods of rest and recovery. The human brain is truly an incredible, complex organ, central to every thought, action, and emotion that we experience. Let's break down its primary regions to understand their individual roles.

better. So starting with the cerebellum that's located at the back of the brain. It is often referred to as the little brain due to its distinct appearance.

The cerebellum plays a vital role in fine-tuning our motor movements, ensuring balance, coordination, as well as graceful movement. Picture a ballet dancer's precise moves or a pianist's agile fingers. The cerebellum ensures such activities are fluid and coordinated.

Up next... Next we have the brain stem. This is the most primitive part of our brain, connecting the brain to the spinal cord. But don't let its size fool you. The brain stem is responsible for vital, life-sustaining functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

Think of it as the body's autopilot, quietly regulating essential functions without our conscious input. Next up we have the cerebrum. This is the largest, most recognized part of the brain. This is where the real magic happens. It's responsible for those higher order functions like thinking, decision making, emotions, and voluntary movements.

It's further divided into lobes that each have their own unique function. To begin, we have the frontal lobe. That's right behind your forehead. And it is the CEO of your brain.

It's involved in processing high level cognitive skills, reasoning, concentration, motor skills. language, and functions as a control center for emotions. Next, we have the parietal lobe, a top of your head processing visual perception and sensory information such as touch, pain, and pressure.

On the sides, we have the temporal lobes. They play a key role in organizing sounds and processing language that is heard by helping with memories, speech perception, and language skills. And then at the back, We have our occipital lobe. It solely is dedicated to processing visual information, translating what our eyes see into images that our brain can understand.

Some additional study topics that you're going to want to look into for the ATITs is going to be neurons, the limbic system, anatomy of a neuron, nerve impulses, as well as synaptic transmissions. Diving into our internal communication powerhouse, we have the endocrine system, which consists of specific glands that produce and secrete hormones. These hormones aren't just chemical messengers, they're instructions, they're instructors that guide a plethora of processes within our body. First on our list is the pituitary gland, often referred to as the master gland. Located in the base of the brain, it doesn't just govern many other glands, but it also produces hormones.

that regulate growth, blood pressure, certain functions of the sex organs, thyroid glands, metabolism, water, and osmolarity regulation of our kidneys, as well as temperature regulation. The thyroid gland, gracefully located in our neck, is essential for our metabolism, energy generation, and body temperature. It produces thyroid hormone, which ultimately regulates the body's metabolism and calcium balances.

Near the thyroid, we have the parathyroid glands. They're four tiny glands with a colossal task. They produce the parathyroid hormone, which plays a role in regulating calcium levels in our body, which is crucial for bone health. Then we have the thymus gland.

Nestled behind our sternum, it is the immunity champion during our early years. They produce T-cells that fight off infections. Sitting like crowns on our kidneys, we have the adrenal glands. They reduce hormones that regulate metabolism, blood pressure, as well as stress response such as cortisol.

Then we have the pancreas. We talked about that a little bit before. It's deep within our abdominal cavity and it wears multiple hats.

It's essential for digestion and sugar regulation, but it's also essential for hormone, insulin, and glucagon generation. which work in tandem to help regulate blood sugar levels. In the realm of our reproduction, we have the ovaries.

In females, not only do we produce eggs, but we also produce estrogen and progesterone, which are hormones that are vital in reproductive health, menstrual cycle, as well as pregnancy. And then lastly, we have the testes in males. On the other hand, the testes are going to produce testosterone, which is crucial in sperm production.

as well as development of male secondary sexual characteristics. As we delve deeper into that hormonal web, we're going to find hormones that are unique in purpose as well as destination. First, we have the thyroid stimulating hormone, also known as TSH. And as the name suggests, it signals the thyroid gland to release this particular hormone.

These thyroid hormones, in turn, regulate our metabolism, energy production, as well as our overall growth. Adrenocorticotropic hormone also known as ACTH, works like a motivator for the adrenal cortex, nudging it to release corticosteroids. These corticosteroids are pivotal in managing our response to stress, inflammation, and more.

Next, we have melanocyte-stimulating hormone, also known as MSH. It's our body's pigment manager. By influencing melanocytes in our skin and our hair, it plays a role in determining our unique colorations as well as patterns. Turning to the reproductive domain, we have the luteinizing hormone LH and the follicle stimulating hormone FSH, which are two dynamic leaders. LH triggers ovulations in females and stimulates testosterone production in males.

Concurrently, FSH oversees the maturation of egg cells in females and the production of sperm cells in males. Prolactin, on the other hand, plays a heartwarming role when it comes to new mothers. It governs the milk production in our mammary glands, ensuring that newborns receive the essential nutrition that they so desperately need. And last, but certainly not least, we have growth hormone, also known as GH, and this hormone wears multiple hats.

Directly produced by the pituitary gland, it stimulates cell growth and regeneration, which translates to muscle and bone growth. So when you're thinking about physical growth or the healing of a fracture, you can thank growth hormone for its tireless work. Some additional study topics that you might find useful when you're creating your study plan for the endocrine system can include the functions of the endocrine system, receptors, hormones, and glands, as well as their secretions.

We're going to take a look at our last system, that is the lymphatic system, also known as our immune system. It really is often considered the unsung hero of the body because it plays such a pivotal role in fluid balance, fat absorption, and most notably, your immunity. Picture it as a vast network of vessels, nodes, and organs working in the background, guarding our well-being. Let's take a closer look at the anatomy of the lymphatic system.

At the heart of this system is lymph vessels. and they transport a fluid called lymph. This fluid carries away waste and toxins from our bodily tissues. Along this journey, that lymph is going to pass through lymph nodes.

And these lymph nodes are tiny bean-shaped structures that filter harmful substances and contain immune cells ready to fight those infections. Major players in the system also include the spleen. That's our largest lymphatic organ. It's responsible for filtering our blood.

And we have the thymus. We talked about that a little bit before. Those are those T cells that mature and they often become ready in our earlier years for combat. There are also two little things in the back of our throat. You may still have them, you may not.

And that is our tonsils. They serve as the body's first line of defense against ingested and inhaled foreign invaders. Let's take a closer look at the types of immunity that we have.

Immunity that's found in our body is that defense mechanism against pathogens, and it comes in various different forms. So we begin with natural passive immunity. This is like a mother's gift to her baby. It's a newborn receives antibodies from the mother through the placenta or the breast milk, offering temporary protection against some diseases.

Think of it as a nature's initial protective shield. Then we have natural active immunity. This is the kind that you get when you're exposed to an illness. Ever wonder why you typically get chicken pox only once and you never see it again?

After that first exposure, the body remembers that invader and knows how to defend against it if it tries to invade again. Next we have artificial passive immunity. So imagine a temporary shield against infections. This is achieved by injecting antibodies into the person from another source.

So for example, if someone was to be exposed to rabies, they might receive a rabies immune globulin shot for immediate protection. That's our artificial passive immunity. And then lastly, we have artificial active immunity.

This is where vaccines come into play. A vaccine introduces a weakened or inactive form of a pathogen or parts of a pathogen like a protein into the body. It's kind of like a rehearsal. The immune system practices its defense strategy. So when it comes into an encounter with that particular pathogen, it's ready to defend it.

Every time you receive a vaccine, it's like training your lymphatic system to be more effective in recognizing and neutralizing threats. So in conclusion, the lymphatic system in and of itself is an expansive network. It operates like a silent guardian.

From filtering out toxins to mastering immunity with the help of vaccinations, it ensures that we remain resilient against an ever-evolving world of pathogens. Some additional topics that you might want to make note of is the immune system itself and its responses, as well as immune disorders. Wow, we've covered a lot today. From our bones to our hormones, big thanks to Smart Edition Academy for sponsoring this video and teaming up with us to deep dive into the anatomy and physiology portion of the ATITs.

If you found this content intriguing, there's so much more to learn on Smart Edition Academy's course. Click the link below to access their full list of courses. And hey, if you enjoyed the video, give it a thumbs up, drop a comment of what you liked and what you would like to learn next, hit that subscribe button for more. Remember, every bit of knowledge brings you one step closer. closer to understanding the amazing world within you.

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Transcript for:Comprehensive Study of Human Anatomy

Transcript for:
Comprehensive Study of Human Anatomy