Exam 1 Study Guide

Introduction to Anatomy

Direction-Related Terms

• Anterior: Toward front of body; example: sternum is anterior to the heart.
• Posterior: Toward back of body; example: vertebra is posterior to the heart.
• Proximal: Closer to origin of body; example: elbow is proximal to wrist.
• Distal: Farther from origin of body; example: knee is distal to thigh.
• Superior/Rostral/Cranial: Toward head/nose; example: head is superior to abdomen.
• Inferior/Caudal: Away from head; example: intestines are inferior to liver.
• Lateral: Away from midline; example: thumb is lateral to pinky.
• Medial: Toward midline; example: heart is medial to lungs.

Capillary Bed Blood Flow

• Blood flow influenced by hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures.
• Blood enters through arteriole, exits via venule.
• Hydrostatic Pressure: Pushes plasma out of capillary.
• Colloid Osmotic Pressure: Pulls fluid into capillary.
• Lymphatic Vessels: Return excess fluid to bloodstream to prevent edema.

Types of Neurons and Glial Cells

• CNS Neurons: Sensory (to CNS), Motor (from CNS), Interneurons (within CNS).
• CNS Glial Cells:
  • Astrocytes: Energy extraction, synapse formation, memory signals.
  • Microglia: CNS phagocytes, engage in immune response.
  • Ependymal Cells: CSF circulation.
  • Oligodendrocytes: Myelin sheath production.
• PNS Neurons: Sensory and Motor.
• PNS Glial Cells:
  • Satellite Cells: Surround neuron cell bodies.
  • Schwann Cells: Myelin sheath in PNS.

Skeletal Muscles

• Organized into fibers and fascicles.
• Connective Tissue Layers:
  • Epimysium: Surrounds muscle.
  • Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles.
  • Endomysium: Surrounds individual fibers.

Neuron-Muscle Interaction

• Impulses reach presynaptic terminal, release acetylcholine.
• Motor End Plate: Receives neurotransmitter to induce contraction.

Bone Ossification

• Intramembranous Ossification: Flat bones, direct ossification.
• Endochondral Ossification: Long bones, cartilage model replaced by bone.

Bone Types

• Compact Bone: Dense, outer layer.
• Spongy Bone: Found in flat bones and epiphyses.
• Red Bone Marrow: Located in spongy bone.

Clinical Significance

• Osteoporosis: Low bone mass, post-menopausal.
• Osteomalacia/Rickets: Bone softening.
• Osteosarcoma: Bone cancer.
• Arthritis: Joint diseases.

Atherosclerosis

• Lipid deposition narrows arterial wall.

Lymph Nodes

• Filter lymphatic fluid, sentinel nodes first in line for cancer spread.

Head and Neck

Skull Bones

• Paired: Temporal, Parietal.
• Unpaired: Frontal, Occipital, Sphenoid, Ethmoid.

Meninges and CSF

• CSF located in subarachnoid space, produced by choroid plexus.
• Choroid Plexus: In 3rd and 4th ventricles, filters CSF.

Conditions

• Hydrocephalus: Excess CSF.
• Meningitis: Meningeal inflammation.

Brain Organization

• Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Brainstem, Spinal cord.

Facial Artery and Cavernous Sinus

• Can lead to brain infections due to anatomical connections.

Cranial Nerves

• CN I-XII, various sensory and motor functions.

Mimetic Muscles

• Innervated by CN VII, responsible for expressions.

TMJ

• Pain in temporomandibular joint.

Salivary Glands

• Sublingual, Submandibular, Parotid glands.

Eye and Orbit

• Lacrimal Apparatus: Tear production.
• Extraocular Muscles: CN III, IV, VI innervation.

Ear Anatomy

• Middle Ear: Ossicles, tensor tympani, stapedius.
• Inner Ear: Balance (Vestibule), Hearing (Cochlea).

Cleft Conditions

• Cleft Palate and Cleft Lip: Fusion failures during development.

Neck Muscles

• Sternocleidomastoid, Infrahyoid, Suprahyoid, Tongue Muscles.

Thyroid and Parathyroid

• Hormones: Thyroxin, Calcitonin, Parathyroid Hormone.

Paravertebral Muscles

• Rectus capitis, Longus capitis, Longus coli.

Blood Supply and Drainage

• Circle of Willis, Carotid Arteries, Jugular Veins.

Lecture Homework Quick Reference

1. Anatomical position: Palms face anteriorly.
2. Terms: Distal, Proximal, Medial, Inferior, Superficial.
3. Serous Cavities: Parietal and Visceral serosa.
4. Connective Tissue: Blood, Bone, Adipose, NOT Neuron.
5. Burns: Blisters in 2nd degree.
6. Skin Layers: Epidermis is most superficial.
7. Burns: Fluid loss from 3rd degree.
8. Calcium Regulation: Calcitonin from thyroid.
9. Bone Cells: Osteoclasts resorb, osteocytes maintain.
10. Bone Layers: Outer layer is compact bone.
11. Facial Nerve: Innervates mimetic muscles.
12. Suprahyoid Muscles: Excludes Sternohyoid.
13. Synaptic Cleft: Acetylcholine binds for muscle contraction.
14. Neuroglial Cells: Function identification.
15. Effectors: Skeletal muscle.
16. Eye Structures: Cornea, Aqueous Humor, Lens, Vitreous Humor.
17. Ear Anatomy: Tympanic membrane separates external/middle ear.
18. Blood Supply: Circle of Willis in brain.

Lecture Quiz Highlights

1. Knee is proximal to foot.
2. Lip is superior to chin.
3. Ankle is distal to thigh.
4. Structures drain via dural sinuses.
5. Slow oxidative fibers have most mitochondria.
6. Jaw closure by masseter and temporalis.
7. Orbicularis oris is circular.
8. Facial artery pulse: Inferior margin of mandible.
9. Internal carotid branches: Anterior cerebral, middle cerebral, ophthalmic.
10. Masseter muscle insertion.
11. Long bone midshaft fracture damages diaphysis.
12. Fast glycolytic fibers produce most power.
13. Muscle soreness from microscopic tears.
14. Muscle fascicle is a bundle of cells.
15. Fast glycolytic fibers fatigue sooner.
16. Slow oxidative fibers resist fatigue.
17. Joint capsule's internal layer produces synovial fluid.
18. Second-class levers work at mechanical advantage.
19. Pronation crosses radius and ulna.
20. Hip is a multiaxial joint.
21. Synovial joints have a joint cavity.
22. Epiphyseal plates increase pre-adolescent joints.
23. Arm abduction.
24. Muscle "fibers" terminology in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
25. Voluntary muscle contractions: Skeletal muscle.

Lab Homework Quick Review

1. Most cranial nerves: False.
2. Cranial nerves count: False.
3. Pia mater: False.
4. Pons location: True.
5. Suture intersection: False.
6. Foramen positioning: False.
7. Foramen view: True.
8. Thyrohyoid: True.
9. Mimetic muscles innervation: True.
10. Scalene muscle passage: False.
11. Muscle Innervation Matching: Diverse nerves.
12. CSF Production: Choroid plexus, subarachnoid space.
13. Sella turcica contents: Pituitary gland.
14. Salivary Gland Flow: Parotid, upper molar.
15. Stapes position: Oval window.
16. Ciliary Body Tension: Increase, thinner lens.

These notes provide a comprehensive study guide for Exam 1, covering key anatomical concepts, clinical significance, and practice questions.