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Transcript for:
Comprehensive Guide to Human Anatomy

Palpation - Feeling with firm pressure Percussion - Tap sharply on specific body sites to detect resonating vibrations Auscultation - Listen to sounds emitted from organs Upper limb:

  • Shoulder
  • Axilla
  • Arm
    • Elbow to shoulder
  • Forearm
    • Elbow to wrist
  • Hand Lower Limb:
  • Gluteal
  • Thigh
    • Knee to hip
  • Leg
    • Knee to ankle
  • Foot Arm = Brachium Forearm = Antebrachium Axilla = Armpit Manus = Hand Pes = Foot Crural = Leg Circumduction - think circle Rotation - think dot Protraction - Body part anteriorly Retraction - Body part posteriorly Flexion of thumb - coronal/frontal Ab/Adduction - Sagittal Superficial - Close to surface Deep - deeper in body Fascia - Layer of tissue somewhere in body
  • Superficial (loose, fatty)
  • Deep (thin, fibrous, no fat) Cutaneous - anything associated with skin Ipsilateral - On the same side
  • Gallbladder and right lung Contralateral - On the opposite side
  • Gallbladder and spleen Unilateral - Only on one side
  • Spleen or appendix Bilateral - On body sides
  • Lungs or ovaries Process - part of bone sticking out
  • Often used for muscle attachment or where bone meets bone Facet - Where bone meets another bone Foramen - Hole Fossa - depression in the bone Tubercle - Where muscle may be attached Inferior angle of scapula - Around T7 Iliac crest - Around L4 Triangle of Auscultation - Gap in muscle above the scapula Pectoral girdle - clavicle and scapula
  • Attachment point for appendicular skeleton Pelvic girdle - Os Coxae
  • Attachment point for appendicular skeleton Vertebral column
  • Cervical = neck
  • Thoracic = trunk
  • Lumber = lower back Abnormal curvatures: Scoliosis - Lateral deviation of vertebrae Kyphosis - Vertebrae curve posteriorly in thoracic region Lordosis - Increased lumbar curvature Intervertebral foramen - Where spinal nerves go out into the body Bifid Spinous process - split
  • Cervical vertebrae Transverse foramen
  • Cervical vertebrae Superficial Muscles in Back:
  • Connect upper limb to trunk
  • move/stabilize pectoral girdle Originate on scapula
  • Deltoid
  • Teres Major
  • Teres Minor
  • Infraspinatus
  • Supraspinatus
  • Subscapularis Insert on humerus
  • Deltoid
    • Abducts, laterally rotate/extend and medially rotate/flex arm
  • Teres Major
    • Adducts & medially rotates arm
  • Teres Minor
  • Infraspinatus
  • Supraspinatus
  • Subscapularis Rotator cuff muscles:
  • Supraspinatus
  • Infraspinatus
  • Teres minor
  • Subscapularis Serratus Muscles
  • Serratus Anterior
    • Protracts the scapula
  • Serratus Posterior Inferior
    • Depress ribs
  • Serratus Posterior Superior
    • Elevate ribs Muscles at an angle can often be involved in rotation Rotatores - vertebrae to vertebrae Levator Costarum - Rib to vertebrae Intertransversarii - Lateral rotation Interspinales - Extension of back Bandage Muscles:
  • Splenius Capitis
    • Origin - Ligamentum nuchae or SPs of thor/cerv vertebrae
    • Insertion - Skull/cervical vertebrae
  • Splenius Cervicis Suboccipital Region
  • Responsible for nodding head “yes” and “no”
  • Atlanto-Occipital Joint
    • Between C1 and Head
  • Allows for flexion and extension Gluteal Muscles that laterally rotate thigh:
  • All except Gluteus medius and minimus
    • Medially rotate & abduct thigh Spinal cord ends around L1-L2 Spinal cord is larger in the cervical and lumbar regions due to the amount of nerves that innervate muscles in that region Filum Terminale is NOT a spinal nerve. It is a continuation of the pia mater Spinal Nerves:
  • Carry information to and from the spinal cord
  • Carry both sensory and motor information Proprioception - Body’s non visual awareness of surroundings Cervical vertebrae - 7 Cervical nerves - 8 Thoracic vertebrae - 12 Thoracic nerves - 12 Lumbar vertebrae - 5 Lumbar nerves - 5 Sacral vertebrae (fused) - 5 Sacral nerves - 5 Co1 31 pairs of nerves total Meninges cover spinal cord/brain
  • Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges Only one layer covers the spinal cord - meningeal layer
  • Protects the spinal cord Cerebrospinal fluid is housed in the subarachnoid space
  • Shock absorber Diffusion medium for
  • Dissolved gasses
  • Nutrients
  • Chemical messengers
  • Waste Pia Mater
  • Lots of vasculature association Denticulate Ligaments
  • Extensions of pia mater Reflexes Spinal Reflex Arc - Pathway of sensory impulses from receptors to effectors without first going to the brain
  • Putting hand on a stove Monosynaptic - Sensory neurons synapse directly with a motor neuron Polysynaptic - One or more interneurons between a sensory and motor neuron Stretch reflex - Monosynaptic reflex
  • Patellar reflex or knee jerk Dermatomes Sensory regions monitored by a single spinal nerve Spinal Tap
  • Remove CSF for examination
  • Administer epidural anesthesia
  • Occurs between L2 and sacrum Tissues
  • Groups of cells or their products that perform a specific function
  1. Epithelial - Layers of closely packed cells
  • Cover organ surface or form glands
  • Protection, secretion, and absorption
  1. Connective - cells that occupy less space in the extracellular material
  • Connect, separates, and supports all other types of tissues in the body
  • Support, protect, bind together organs, storage
  • Tendons/ligaments, dermis, blood, bone
  1. Muscle - specialized cells contract when stimulated
  • Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
  • Moves skeleton & organ walls Muscle Shapes: Parallel - fibers parallel to longitudinal axis
  • Rectus abdominis Circular - fibers in concentric circular arrangements
  • Orbicularis oculi Convergent - fibers spread over a broad area at thick central tendons
  • Pectoralis major Pennate - short fibers in relation to total muscle length. Tendon runs the length of the muscle
  • Unipennate - Palmar interosseous
  • Bipennate - Rectus femoris
  • Multipennate - Deltoid Blood vessels Tunica externa - Outermost
  • Collagen and elastic fibers anchors vessel Tunica media - middle
  • Concentric sheets of smooth mm - reduce/increase diameter of vessels = vasoconstriction/vasodilation Tunica intima - innermost
  • Collagen and elastic fibers Joints Gliding (Planar)
  • Might find between carpal bones, tarsal bones, articular facts on verts, acromion/clavicle Hinge
  • Knee and Elbow Condyloid (Ellipsoidal)
  • Oval articular surface fits within a depression on the opposing surface
  • Biaxial - movement in two planes
  • Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint
  • Flexion/Extension & Abduction/Adduction Saddle
  • Biaxial - movement in two planes
  • Flexion/Extension & Abduction/Adduction
  • Carpometacarpal joint Ball and Socket
  • Does all types of movement Pivot
  • Rotation
  • Elbow and C1-C2 More mobile = Less stable Less mobile = More stable Extensor muscles = posterior forearm
  • Most mm arise at lateral epicondyle
  • Insert on carpals, metacarpals, or phalanges
  • ALL innervated by radial nerve Flexor muscles = anterior forearm Extensor compartment of forearm: Brachioradialis flexes forearm in mid position Extensor carpi radialis longus insert on carpal bones, long and short, attach on the radialis, and extends the wrist Extensor carpi radialis brevis ^^does the same^^ Extensor digitorum extends digits and extends at wrist (weak function) Extensor digi minimi extends pinky Extensor digitorum tendons Extensor carpi ulnaris extends the wrist and adducts the wrist Anconeus extends the forearm Supinator supinates the forearm Abductor pollicis longus goes to the last phalanx Abductor pollicis brevis only goes to first phalanx (thumb knuckle) Extensor pollicis longus extends the thumb Extensor indicis extends the index finger Anatomical Snuffbox: Abductor pollicis longus tendon Extensor pollicis brevis tendon Lateral leg: Superficial posterior compartment
  • Gastrocnemius
  • Soleus
  • Plantaris Lateral compartment
  • Fibularis longus
  • Fibularis brevis Anterior Compartment:
  • Tibialis Anterior
  • Extensor Digitorum Longus
  • Extensor Hallucis Longus Pectoral Region: Axilla - Triangular area where the arm and thorax unite Bony borders - clavicle, rib, and scapula Muscles that move the humerus and/or shoulder Pectoralis originates from clavicle, sternum, costal cartilages on ribs Flexors of the leg:
  • Gracilis
  • Sartorius
  • Gastrocnemius Hands and feet: Extensor and flexor retinaculum - strong fibrous bands that cross at the wrist/ankle Thenar group innervated by median nerve Lateral Lumbricals innervated by median nerve EVERYTHING ELSE IN HAND IS ULNAR NERVE Joints at the elbow: Joint between humerus and ulna/radius = hinge joint Ligaments support this joint Ulnar collateral ligament - between medial epicondyle and ulna Radial collateral ligament - arises at lateral epicondyle and attaches at annular ligament Joint between radius and ulna = Radioulnar jts = pivot joint Proximal Radioulnar joint Distal Radioulnar joint Knee Joint Extracapsular knee ligaments = outside the joint capsule LCL - Lateral Collateral Ligament MCL - Medial Collateral Ligament Patellar ligament/tendon Quadriceps tendon ACL - Anterior Cruciate Ligament
  • Prevents hyperextension of knee
  • Prevents femur from sliding posteriorly on tibia PCL - Posterior Cruciate Ligament
  • Prevents hyperflexion of knee
  • Prevents femur from sliding anteriorly on tibia Unhappy triad - ACL, PCL, Medial meniscus Menisci - plates of fibrocartilage on articular surface of tibia
  • Shock Absorbers
  • Connected via transverse ligament Ankle Joint = Talocrural joint Two articulations: Tibia - talus & Fibula - talus
  • Both enclosed within one synovial joint
  • Lateral and medial malleoli surround talus on both sides Deltoid Ligament:
  • Tibiocalcaneal
  • Tibionavicular
  • Anterior/posterior tibiotalar Lateral Ligament:
  • Posterior talofibular
  • Anterior talofibular
  • Calcaneofibular Rectus Sheath Anterior layer of rectus sheath = aponeurosis of internal & external oblique m Posterior layer of rectus sheath = aponeurosis of internal oblique & transversus abdominis Arcuate line = point at which the aponeuroses of all three abdominal mm pass anterior to rectus abdominis mm Below Arcuate line - no posterior rectus sheath, just transversalis fascia Superior & Inferior epigastric aa & vv = Under rectus abdominis m Nerves of Anterolateral Abdominal Wall Thoracoabdominal N - continuation of lower intercostal nerves 11 pairs of intercostal spaces Subcostal N - from ventral ramus of T12 N Iliohypogastric N - from ventral ramus of L1 N Ilioinguinal N - from ventral ramus of L1 N Superior & Inferior Vena Cava and Coronary Sinus flow into R atrium AV Valves are held closed by the papillary muscles and chordnae tendinae SA node - right atrium ONLY
  • Embedded in posterior wall of R atrium near entrance of SVC
  • Pacemaker of the heart
  • Initiates cardiac mm contraction
  • Determines heart rate AV node - near atrioventricular septum
  • Sits within floor of R atrium/septum, near opening of coronary sinus AV bundle (Bundle of His) R & L Bundle Branches Purkinje fibers Muscular walls of R&L ventricle Cardiac Cycle Period between beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next Contraction (systole) - Contraction of a heart chamber Relaxation (diastole) - Chamber is relaxed - fills with blood Heart murmur mostly occurs in the mitral valve Right coronary A
  • R marginal A
  • SA Nodal A
  • Posterior interventricular A
  • AV Nodal A Left coronary A
  • Left Anterior Descending A
  • Circumflex A
    • L marginal A
    • Posterior branch of L ventricle
  • Branch to SA node - sometimes will arise from L coronary A Posterior Interventricular A forms anastamosis with Anterior interventricular A Circumflex A forms anastomosis with Right coronary A Circumflex A
  • Posterior branch A of L. ventricle Venous Drainage of Heart Coronary Sinus: Great Cardiac V Middle Cardiac V Small Cardiac V Posterior V of L ventricle Fetal Circulation Two umbilical AA - carry blood and waste away from the fetus to placenta = medial umbilical ligament in adult One umbilical V - carries oxygen rich blood to fetus = round ligament of liver in adult Ductus venosus - allows most blood to bypass the fetal liver and go to the heart = ligamentum venosum in adult Foramen ovale - allows blood to shunt between the two atria - bypasses lungs and goes directly to heart (open in fetus) = fossa ovalis Ductus arteriosus - connects the pulmonary trunk with the aorta - enables most blood to bypass fetal lungs = ligamentum arteriosum in adult Arteriosclerosis - Thickening of vessel walls and reduction in diameter “hardening of the arteries” Aneurysm - bulge in the weakened wall of a blood vessel
    Lungs Parietal pleura:
  • Cervical pleura
  • Costal pleura
  • Diaphragmatic pleura
  • Mediastinal pleura Trachea Bifurcates superior/posterior to heart Held open by rings of hyaline cartilage Lined with respiratory epithelium - includes:
  • Cilia - w/ mucous, removes particulate matter out of system
  • Goblet cells - produce mucous EXAM 3 Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity Peritoneum = Serous membrane Peritoneal cavity = potential space between parietal and visceral peritoneum
  1. parietal peritoneum - covers walls of cavity 2. visceral peritoneum - covers the organs Mesenteries = folds (layers) of peritoneum Function: - support and stabilize organs
  • Passageway for vessels, nerves in between layers Many types of mesenteries:
  1. Greater omentum: (fatty skin) stomach/duodenum <-> transverse colon/ posterior body wall
  2. Lesser omentum: lesser curvature stomach/duodenum <-> liver Two parts:
  3. Gastrohepatic ligament- stomach to liver
  4. Hepatoduodenal ligament-
  5. Mesentery proper: holds the small intestine to itself, and attaches it to the abdominal wall.
  6. Mesocolon: mesentery of the colon, holds colon to body wall and hold them to each other
  7. Peritoneal “ligaments”: folds of peritoneum that connects an organ with another or abdominal wall Coronary ligament – connects liver to diaphragm, goes into a point also known as L and R triangular lig. Falciform ligament – connects liver to anterior abdominal wall Gastrophrenic ligament – between stomach and diaphragm Gastrosplenic ligament – spleen and stomach Gastrocolic ligament – small intestine and stomach
  • all three make up greater omentum Peritoneal folds(bump):reflection of peritoneum raised from the body wall by underlying vessels, ducts,etc. Lateral Umbilical folds: bump in peritoneum, where it covers inferior epigastric AA/VV (2) Medial Umbilical folds: bump in peritoneum, where it covers medial umbilical ligs.(2) Median Umbilical fold: bump in peritoneum, where it covers the medial umbilical fold, urachus where bladder used to attach to umbilical fold Relationship between viscera (organs) and peritoneum Intraperitoneal organs: completely surrounded by visceral peritoneum (Stomach, spleen, most of your small intestine, cecum, appendix, transverse and sigmoid colon) Retroperitoneal Organs: - lie against posterior body wall (without a mesentery),
  • have parietal peritoneum only on their anterior surface (Kidneys, pancreas, abdominal aorta, IVC, adrenal glands, ureters, ascending/descending colon) S:Suprarenal (adrenal) gland A:aorta/ivc D: duodenum (second and third part) P: pancreas ( except a lil) U:ureters C: colon (ascending/descending) K:kidneys E:esophagus R: rectum Muscles of Posterior Abdominopelvic Wall Two or three major muscles are associated with the anterior aspect of the posterior abdominal wall. Quadratus lumborum: help move lower back, lower back extensor muscle, erects back, goes toward iliac crest Iliacus: Hip flexor Psoas major: Hip flexor Psoas minor: Hip flexor Nerves of Posterior Abdominopelvic Wall Subcostal N: Comes off T12 Lumbar plexus: Arises from ventral rami of L1-4 Branches:
  1. iliohypogastric N: Innervates abdominal muscles from unit 3 2. ilioinguinal N: Innervates abdominal muscles from unit 3 3. genitofemoral N: L1-2 1. Femoral Branch 2. Genital Branch 4. lateral femoral cutaneous N: L2-3 5. femoral N: L2-4 6. obturator N: L2-4

Gastrointestinal Tract - Digestive Organs

  • tube composed of four layers

•Function:

      •Regions:

•Internal: structure:

•Blood supply (go to the blood flow lecture pertaining to the Celiac Trunk): Small Intestine Serosa is covered by visceral peritoneum and Adventitia is not covered by visceral peritoneum Stomach: Holding organ - mechanical/chemical digestion of food with gastric secretions to form chyme Gastric Pits: Line gastric mucosa Gastric Glands: Open into gastric pits - secrete acids, digestive enzymes

  1. Duodenum: mixes/receives chyme from stomach and digestive secretions from pancreas and liver
  • Partially Retroperitoneal
  • Acid neutralization/chemical digestion
  1. Jejunum: Where most carbs and proteins are absorbed
  2. Ileum: Controls flow of material into cecum - ileocecal valve
  • Vitamin B12 absorption Internal structure:
  • Circular folds
  • Microvilli Blood supply(go to the blood flow lecture pertaining to the Celiac Trunk & Superior Mesenteric A): Large Intestine (Colon) Functions: Retain, transport, and eliminate digested material as fecal matter
  • Compaction and storage of material into feces
  • Absorption of water, electrolytes, some nutrients Colon divided into 4 regions:
  1. Ascending
  2. Transverse
  3. Descending
  4. Sigmoid Cecum: Vermiform appendix: Rectum: Last part of G.I Tract
  • Temporary storage of fecal matter
  • Internal Anal Sphincter - involuntary
  • External Anal Sphincter - voluntary Blood supply(go to the blood flow lecture pertaining to the Superior & Inferior Mesenteric AA): Distinguished from small intestine by size and … Taenia coli Epiploic appendages Haustra Accessory Digestive Organs Pancreas •3 Main parts:
  • Head - along curve of duodenum
  • Body
  • Tail •Function: Digestive/exocrine and endocrine gland:
  • Primarily exocrine secretions (pancreatic juices = digestive enzymes) that enter duodenum from pancreatic duct
  • Endocrine secretions (glucagon and insulin) enter blood stream Hepatopancreatic ampulla
  • Ampulla opens into duodenum at the duodenal papilla Liver Function:
  • Secretes bile
  • Stores nutrients, vitamins, etc
  • Detox poisons, drugs •Lobes: divided into functionally independent R and L lobes Porta hepatis = Region between caudate and quadrate lobes Portal Triad
  • Portal vein
  • Hepatic A
  • Bile duct Portal System Portal V: Main vessel of portal system of veins - carries blood to the liver Function: Collects blood from organs that have substances needing to be detoxified Liver lobule
  • Hepatic A and Portal V both dump into the central vein via sinusoids
  • From the central vein to the sublobar v to the Hepatic v and into the IVC Gallbladder Function: Stores bile Cystic duct: Carries bile to/from gallbladder Liver cells (make bile) > bile canaliculi > bile ducts > R&L hepatic ducts Biliary Apparatus
  • Cystic duct > R&L Hepatic ducts > Common Hepatic duct > Common Bile Duct Organs From Other Systems

    • spleen (lymphatic)

                - adrenal glands (endocrine)

Spleen Function:

  • Fight infection/immune response
  • Reservoir for RBC, platelets
  • Eliminate damaged RBC,platelets Suprarenal (adrenal) glands Medulla - Produces epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine Nerve supply Celiac Plexus - Innervates smooth mm of organs that receive blood from the celiac trunk Layers of Scrotum & Testes
  • Skin
  • Superficial fascia
  • External spermatic fascia
  • Cremaster fascia
  • Internal spermatic fascia
  • Tunica vaginalis
  • Tunica albuginea Layers of Spermatic Cord
  • External spermatic fascia
  • Cremaster fascia
  • Internal spermatic fascia
  • Obliterated processus vaginalis Testes
  • Subdivided by fibrous septa to form many lobules
  • Each lobule contains tightly coiled loops = seminiferous tubules
  • Seminiferous tubules = produce sperm
  • Interstitial cells between tubules = produce testosterone Genital ducts: Sperm arrives from testis and are collected, stored, activated, and delivered to penis by these ducts Pathway:
  • Seminiferous tubules
  • Rete Testis
  • Efferent ductules
  • Epididymis
  • Vas Deferens
  • Ejaculatory duct = Junction of Vas Deferens + Seminal vesicles - housed entirely within prostate gland Sperm does not flow through the seminal vesicles!!!!
  • Urethra - tube for flow of urine or semen through penis Prostate
  • Accessory glands = Add seminal fluid to sperm
  • Circumscribes urethra
  • Secretions: colorless fluid, rich in enzymes
    • Enzyme that dissolves mucus secretions in vagina
    • Seminalplasmin = antibiotic (kills a variety of bacteria)
  • Prostate fluid makes up about 20-30% of semen Seminal Vesicles
  • Long, lobular gland adjoining vas deferens at entrance of prostate
  • Secretes 60% of ejaculatory fluid
  • Rich in proteins and sugars Bulbourethral gland or Cowper’s gland
  • Secretions = pre-ejactulate - two basic functions
    • Neutralizes urinary acids that may remain in urethra
    • Provides lubrication for tip of penis Penis 3 Parts:
  • Root
  • Body
  • Glans Ligaments of Female Reproductive Structures
  • Broad ligament - Double layer of peritoneum (mesentery)
    • Mesovarium: Suspends ovaries
    • Mesosalpinx: suspends/holds uterine tubes in place
  • Suspensory ligament of ovary
    • Suspends ovary to lateral wall of pelvis
    • Runs with ovarian vessels
  • Ligament of ovary = ovarian ligament
    • Attaches each ovary to uterus
  • Round ligament of uterus
    • Restricts posterior movement of uterus Vesicouterine pouch - separates uterus and bladder Rectourterine pouch - separates uterus and rectum Vagina Structures - ant/post. Fornix, vestibule Function - Excretory duct for menstrual fluid, forms birth canal, receives penis during intercourse Uterus
  • Body: subdivided into 2 parts
    • Fundus
    • Isthmus - Constricted region above cervix opens into cervix via internal os
  • Cervix
    • Internal os
    • Cervical canal
    • External os Functions - Embryo and fetus develop here Three Layers:
  • Perimetrium: outer layer
  • Myometrium: middle muscular layer, where NN and vessels occur
  • Endometrium: inner mucous layer - shed and renewed during menstrual cycle Uterine Tubes Function - Passage for oocytes, place for fertilization, sometimes implantation of embryo
  • Infundibulum: funnel-shaped distal end
    • Ostium - opening
    • Fimbriae - fingerlike projections that spread over the ovaries
  • Ampulla: where oocytes are usually fertilized
  • Isthmus Ovaries Function - produce oocytes and hormones Structures
  • Corpus Luteum - mass of follicle cells that secretes progesterone (mostly) and estrogen
    • Prepares uterus for pregnancy Perineum
  • Area between pubic symphysis and anus External Genitalia Structures:
  • Vestibule - between vaginal canal and urethra
  • Labia majora - fat filled outer edges
  • Labia minora - Smaller inner edges
  • Glans clitoris - tip
  • Vestibular bulb - erectile tissue
  • Greater vestibular gland - Lubricates vestibule and vaginal opening
  • Paraurethral gland - beside urethra, secretes when a female ejaculates, counterpart to prostate in males Female/male homologous structures
  • Glans Clitoris <-> Glans penis
  • Labia majora <-> Scrotum EXAM 4 Skull Structures and bones: Two main parts
  1. Neurocranium: “braincase”
  • Encloses brain
  • Skull cap = calvaria
  • Cranial bone or floor = basicranium
  1. Viscerocranium: facial skeleton (bottom or orbit and down) Skull Landmarks Glabella - space between eyes just above the nose (glabellar reflex tapping middle and will blink the first few times and then will stop blinking) Superciliary arch - brow (more pronounced in males) Sutures Occiput = back of head Temporal fossa = temporalis m (big chomper) Pterion = clinically important, H shaped suture for bones meet (parietal, frontal, sphenoid, and temporal)
  • Major artery runs underneath Pterion (Middle Meningeal A) Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) = mandible (jaw) articulates with braincase Hard palate = made up of palatine process and palatine bone Cavities of the Skull
  • Cranial cavity
  • Orbit
  • Oral cavity
  • Nasal cavity
  • Paranasal sinuses Cranial Fossae - conform to the contours of the brain
  • Anterior cranial fossa
    • Frontal lobe
  • Middle cranial fossa
    • Temporal lobe
  • Posterior cranial fossa
    • Cerebellum Five layers of tissues compose the scalp
  • Layers 1-3 = scalp proper
    • Skin
    • Connective Tissue - DENSE
    • Aponeurosis
    • Loose CT
    • Pericranium: Dense CT
      • Forms external periosteum of Calvaria Epicranial aponeurosis = Galea aponeurotica
  • Tendinous sheet covering Calvaria Superficial Muscles of Face
  • Muscles of facial expression, sphincters/dilators of orifices
  • Mainly attached to skin of face
  • Supplied by facial N (CN VII) Muscles of mastication Temporalis M - Elevates/retracts mandible Masseter M - Elevates/protracts mandible Lat/Med Pterygoid MM - Moves jaw side to side Med Pterygoid M - same fx as masseter Sternocleidomastoid M - Divides neck into anterior and posterior triangles; Bilateral contraction - Flexion; Unilateral contraction - rotation to opposite side Platysma - Tenses neck Superficial Muscles of Anterior Neck Hyoid bone - Horseshoe shaped bone in your neck; Does not articulate with another bone Suprahyoid group: Elevates the region
  • Mylohyoid
  • Stylohyoid
  • Anterior belly of Digastric
  • Posterior belly of Digastric
  • Geniohyoid Infrahyoid group: Depresses the region
  • Omohyoid
  • Sternohyoid
  • Sternothyroid
  • Thyrohyoid Innervations! Suprahyoid innervated by 5, 7, & 12 Digastric - V & VII Mylohyoid - V Geniohyoid - XII Stylohyoid - VII Infrahyoid group innervated by ansa cervicalis except Thyrohyoid Omohyoid - Ansa Cervicalis Sternohyoid - Ansa Cervicalis Sternothyroid - Ansa Cervicalis Thyrohyoid - XII Salivary Glands Innervated by Glossopharyngeal Parotid gland - largest of salivary gland Parotid duct - pierces buccinator mm Empties into oral cavity Innervated by Facial Sublingual gland - Lies in floor of mouth between mandible and genioglossus m Sublingual ducts - opens into floor of mouth Submandibular gland - empties near lingual frenulum Mandible and Teeth Teeth - 32 in an adult Deciduous (milk teeth) - Premolars, incisors, and canines Permanent - molars Cranial Meninges Dura Mater: protects brain, supports vessels and forms venous sinuses
  • Dense, fibrous membrane
  • Outer layer
  • **bilayered
    • External: Periosteal layer
    • Internal: Meningeal layer Arachnoid Mater
  • Delicate, intermediate layer
  • Arachnoid trabeculae - weblike mass that bridges subarachnoid space (CSF filled) and “suspends” brain Pia Mater
  • Delicate, highly vascular membrane
  • Innermost layer
  • Adheres to surface of brain Epidural space - Dura/skull interface (between cranial bones and periosteal layer of dura
  • ‘potential ‘ space
  • Can become ‘real’ space with trauma/disease
    • Eg. Accumulation of blood from torn meningeal vessels Subdural space - Dura/arachnoid junction
  • ‘Potential’ space
  • Can become ‘real’ space with trauma/disease
    • Eg. Subdural hematoma Subarachnoid space - Between arachnoid and pia
  • Actual space
  • Contains CSF, AA, and VV Epidural hematoma - Commonly caused by meningeal A rupture Subdural hematoma - Commonly result of rupture of cerebral V Dural Infoldings - Dural reflections - formed by internal meningeal layer of dura Functions: support and separate different regions of the brain
  1. Falx Cerebri - largest
  • In longitudinal fissure
  • Separates L. and R. cerebral hemispheres
  1. Falx Cerebelli
  • Partially separates cerebellar hemispheres
  1. Tentorium Cerebelli
  • Separates occipital lobes of cerebral hemispheres from cerebellum
  1. Sellar Diaphragm: suspended between clinoid processes
  • Forms roof over hypophyseal fossa (Covers pituitary gland) Dural Venous Sinuses Spaces between periosteal and meningeal layers of dura
  • All blood from brain (ie. large VV from brain surface) (ultimately) drains through sinuses into IJVs Superior Sagittal Sinus - Top Inferior Sagittal Sinus - Bottom of falx cerebri Straight Sinus - T-junction where Falx cerebri meets Tentorium Cerebelli Occipital Sinus - In falx cerebelli Confluence of Sinuses - where everything meets in the back of the head Transverse Sinus - Travels along outer edge of Tentorium Cerebelli Sigmoid Sinus - S-shaped Superior and Inferior Petrosal come from Cavernous sinus and connect to Sigmoid sinus Cavernous sinus - Sup/Inf Petrosal - Sigmoid Ventricles: Secretions (CSF) from choroid plexus (little balls) of ventricles fill these spaces CSF FLOW Lateral Ventricles - Interventricular Foramen - 3rd Ventricle - Cerebral Aqueduct - 4th Ventricle - Median/Lateral Apertures - Subarachnoid Space - Superior Sagittal Sinus Arachnoid Granulations - extensions of arachnoid
  • Protrude through dural meningeal layer of dura into the venous sinuses
  • Allow CSF to enter dural venous system Granulations = groups of Arachnoid villi Hydrocephalus Caused by excess CSF from:
  • Overproduction
  • Obstruction of flow
  • Interference w/ absorption Vasculature and Nerves supplying Dura Mater Arteries:
  • Middle Meningeal A: Branch of Maxillary A Veins:
  • Middle meningeal V: Accompanies middle meningeal A Nerves:
  • Mainly from branches of Trigeminal N Brain Rostral - Towards the nose Caudal - Towards the tail Central Sulcus - Separates front of brain from back of brain Development of Brain Central Nervous System: Begins as hollow tube containing fluid Week 4: Cephalic portion of this tube enlarges to form 3 prominent primary brain vesicles
  • Prosencephalon: Forbrain
    • Telencephalon: Cerebrum (Two cerebral hemispheres)
    • Diencephalon: Epithalamus (roof), thalamus (walls), and hypothalamus (floor)
  • Mesencephalon: Midbrain
  • Rhombencephalon: Hindbrain
    • Metencephalon: Pons and cerebellum
    • Myelencephalon: Medulla oblongata Adult Brain - Five Divisions Gray Matter
  • Cortex
  • Cerebral Nuclei White Matter
  • Tracts - Three types
    • Projection - Carries information between brain and spinal cord
    • Commissural - Carries information between the two hemispheres
    • Association - Carries information within one hemisphere Cerebral lobes: Conscious thought, intellectual functions, memory, storage, and processing CONSCIOUS PERCEPTION: Frontal lobe - Voluntary motor fxns, personality, decision making, verbal communication
  • Precentral gyrus - houses primary motor cortex Parietal lobe - General sensory fxns - touch, pressure, pain, temp
  • Evaluate shape/texture of objects
  • Understanding speech
  • Postcentral gyrus - houses primary somatosensory cortex Homunculus - Shows amount of cortex devoted to motor or sensory fxns Occipital lobe - Visual cortex
  • Houses primary visual cortex - processes visual stimuli Temporal lobe
  • Primary auditory cortex - process auditory stimuli
  • Primary olfactory cortex - processes olfactory stimuli Insula - Primary gustatory cortex -processes taste Lentiform Nucleus - Formed by Putamen and Globus pallidus Diencephalon
  • Epithalamus
    • Roof of 3rd Ventricle
    • Contains pineal gland - secretes hormone melatonin
      • Regulates day-night cycles (Circadian Rhythm)
  • Thalamus
    • Paired mass grey matter (separated by 3rd ventricle)
    • Interthalamic adhesion - Intermediate mass - connects paired thalamus
    • Functions - Relay and processing center for sensory info to cerebrum
  • Hypothalamus - Control or regulates numerous activities through hormone release
    • Regulates body temp, hunger/thirst, emotion, sexual drive, sleep/wake cycle
    • Connects to pituitary gland via infundibulum Pituitary gland - endocrine structure
  • GH - Growth Hormone
  • TSH - Thyroid stimulating hormone
  • ADH - antidiuretic hormone Mesencephalon - Process visual and auditory stimuli and generates reflexive responses to these stimuli
  • Corpora quadrigemina - two pairs of sensory nuclei
    • Superior Colliculus - process visual info
    • Inferior Colliculus - process auditory info
  • Red nucleus - fine motor control (i.e muscles tone, posture)
  • Substantia nigra - regulates motor output of cerebral nuclei by making dopamine (Neurotransmitter)
  • Cerebral peduncles - anchor cerebrum to brainstem
    • Carry information between cerebrum and brainstem/spinal cord
  • Cerebral aqueduct - connects 3rd and 4th ventricle Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) Metencephalon - pons and cerebellum Pons
  • Regulates rate/depth of breathing
  • Relays information between cerebrum and cerebellum Cerebellum
  • Vermis (unites hemispheres)
  • Arbor vitae
  • Folia Functions
  • Receive information from cerebrum, ear, eye, and spinal cord
  • Outputs info to cerebrum, skeletal mm
  • Monitors all proprioceptive, visual, tactile, balance, and auditory sensations received by brain and makes adjustments Medulla Oblongata
  • Relays info to thalamus and other brain centers
  • Regulates respiratory rate, blood pressure, heart rate Olive
  • Relay ascending sensory info to cerebellum Pyramid
  • House motor projection tracts Main components of Limbic System
  • Structures involved in emotion, learning, memories associated with emotions Cingulate gyrus - Receives info from other parts of limbic system’ enables you to focus on emotionally important event Hippocampus - long term memory storage Amygdala - Stores info about emotional events; strong emotions, especially fear Fornix - Connects hippocampus w/ other limbic structures Olfactory structures - odors connected with memories
  • Forgetting
  • Feeding
  • Fighting
  • Family
  • Fornicating Anterior Vertebral mm
  • Anterior Scalene
  • Middle Scalene
  • Posterior Scalene Viscera of neck: Composed of three layers
  1. Endocrine - Thyroid, Parathyroid
  2. Respiratory - Larynx, Trachea, and Pharynx
  3. Alimentary - Pharynx, Esophagus Thyroid gland - bilobed
  • Thyroid hormone - controls rate of metabolism
  • Calcitonin - reduces blood Ca level Parathyroid gland - bilobed
  • PTH (parathyroid hormone) - Increases blood Ca levels Respiratory - Larynx, trachea, and pharynx
  • Routes air and food, produces voice Laryngeal “skeleton”
  • Nine cartilages joined by ligaments and membranes Single cartilages
  • Thyroid - largest, laryngeal prominence = Adam’s apple, does not go all the way around
  • Cricoid - Goes all the way around and is larger in the back
  • Epiglottis - Above the glottis Paired cartilages
  • Arytenoid
  • Corniculate
  • Cuneiform Vocal folds - “True” vocal cords (source of sound)
  • Paired vocal ligaments (+ mucous membrane covering) Vestibular folds - “False” vocal cords - no fx in sound Aryepiglottic folds - Support for soft tissue Rima Glottidis - Aperture (opening) between vocal folds Glottis - Vocal folds + Rima glottidis Laryngeal cavity - divided into 3 regions
  1. Vestibule - superior to vestibular folds
  2. Ventricle - between vestibular folds and vocal folds
  3. Infraglottic cavity - inferior to vocal folds Muscles of Larynx Extrinsic mm - Move larynx as a whole
  • Infrahyoid mm - depressors of hyoid & larynx
  • Suprahyoid mm - elevators of hyoid & larynx Intrinsic mm - move laryngeal parts - altering length/tension of vocal folds
  • Most supplied by recurrent laryngeal N - branch of Vagus
  • Lateral Cricoarytenoid m - Adduction of vocal cords
  • Posterior Criocrytenoid m - Abduction of vocal cords Alimentary - Pharynx and esophagus Pharynx - Common passageway connecting the nose, mouth, and throat
  • Extends internal nares <-> larynx/esophagus
  • Shared by digestive and respiratory systems Nasopharynx - Between soft palate and nasal cavity
  • Respiratory
  • Pharyngeal tonsil (Adenoids) Oropharynx - Between soft palate and base of tongue at hyoid bone
  • Respiratory and digestive
  • Palatine tonsils (lymph tissue on each side of oropharynx) Laryngopharynx - Between hyoid bone and entrance to esophagus
  • Digestive
  • Becomes continuous with esophagus Muscles of Pharynx External = Constrictors
  • Run circumferentially
  • Superiod, middle, and inferior pharyngeal constrictors Internal = Elevates (Shortens and widens) pharynx and larynx during swallowing and speaking
  • Run longitudinally
  • Stylopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus, and palatopharyngeus Innervation
  • Most - branch of Cranial N 10 (Vagus)
  • Except Stylopharyngeus = Glossopharyngeal