Stoic calm and serenity, more balance, becoming independent of the adversities of fate. The teaching of Stoicism is currently a big trend, especially in the USA, and is being practiced in a contemporary form by more and more people. But what exactly is Stoic philosophy all about and why is it still attractive to so many people today? In the first part of this series we provide an overview of the most important representatives of Stoicism and the repercussions that this philosophical doctrine has had to this day. Along with Plato's Academy, the Aristotelian Peripatos (Walking Hall) and the Cepos (Garden) of Epicurus, the Stoa is one of the most important philosophical schools of antiquity. It was built around 300 BC. Founded in Athens by Zeno of Cition in the 1st century BC and existed for around 500 years. It is named after the place where its followers philosophized at the time: the painted portico (stoa poikile) in the Athens market square. Followers of Stoicism are called Stoics. Their goal is to recognize and fill their place in the order of the universe. This includes practicing emotional self-control, accepting one's own fate, and striving for knowledge and virtue. The Greek philosopher Socrates is considered a great role model . As with him, life and work form a unity with many Stoic philosophers. Among the first Stoics we find an impoverished castaway, a former boxer and a freed slave. Stoicism emerged in a political time of crisis and upheaval. The order structure of the polis had dissolved and people were looking for support and orientation in the face of changes and unrest. What is characteristic of Stoic philosophy is its cosmological approach, which is aimed at a holistic understanding of the world. Stoics look beyond the narrow confines of the polis and see themselves as one with the cosmos and world events. The cosmos is understood as a meaningful and rationally ordered whole. A universal principle is assumed that works in all natural phenomena and natural contexts. This idea is also reflected socially and politically. Stoics develop the idea of cosmopolitanism (world citizenship) and it is probably no coincidence that none of the first Stoics were Greeks in the strict sense, although Athens remained the center of the Stoic school for a long time. But it's not just the Stoics' worldview and perspective that are holistic. The classical disciplines of philosophy - ethics, logic and physics - are also understood in Stoicism as an organic whole, as a closely linked, interdependent system. Like an egg, Stoic philosophy is a unity of ethics (protein), logic (eggshell) and physics (yolk). One discipline cannot function without the other. Let us now take a look at the beginnings of Stoicism and its most important representatives. Important representatives of the early Greek Stoa are Zeno of Cition (333/332 - 262/261 BC), Kleanthes of Assos (331 - 232 BC), and Chrysippus of Soloi (279 - 206 BC) . Although the writings of the early Stoics have survived only in fragments, they have had a considerable influence on later philosophy over the centuries. Zeno (333/332 - 262/261 BC) was the son of a wealthy merchant. He lost all his belongings in a shipwreck and initially joined the Cynic Crates in Athens . The Cynics despised possession and rejected common social and moral ideas. From them he learned that happiness does not consist in possession, but in inner independence from external things and circumstances. Zeno also adopted suggestions from various other philosophical directions and processed them into an independent philosophy. He later founded his own school of philosophy. He taught in the painted portico in Athens - the “stoa poikile” - which is why his followers were called Stoics. He maintained the ascetic lifestyle of the Cynics. He taught that one should live virtuously and deal calmly with the adversities of fate, and led a frugal and celibate life. By the nature and content of his Through his philosophizing, but also through his modesty and consistent way of life, he soon had many listeners and students. The King of Macedonia Antigonus II Gonatos was among his followers . Zeno probably wrote 27 books. Among other things, he published the work “Politeia” (The State). In this he first outlined the basic idea of a cosmic republic: “We should view all people as our fellow citizens and local residents, and there should be a way of life and order like that a flock grazing together and nourished by a common law " (Plutarch, LA 329a). In this work he also argues for the abolition of marriage, money and religion. Kleanthes (331-232 BC) was a boxer before coming to Athens to pursue philosophy. He first listened to the Cynic Crates and was then a faithful student of Zeno for 19 years. He was very poor and earned his living at night by doing hard physical work. After Zeno, he took over the leadership of the Stoic school for three decades and founded Stoic theology. He was a prolific writer and probably wrote 57 works, including the “Zeushymnos”. In it he describes Zeus as the world soul, an ordering principle that works in everything. (Plutarch, LA 329a) Chrysippus was a student of Kleanthes and was named after whose death was the third leader of the Stoic school. Through numerous writings, he made Stoicism the most influential philosophical movement in the Greco-Roman area. He wrote more than 700 writings, including 311 on logic, of which only fragments have survived. Chrysippus systematized them Stoic doctrine and developed it further in thought. He was the first to describe the ideal of the Stoic sage, who lives free of emotions in harmony with natural laws. The middle Stoics dealt extensively with Plato and Aristotle. They adopted some elements from their philosophy and integrated them them into Stoic ethics. As teachers, they also brought Stoic philosophy from Greece to Rome. Among other things, they exerted influence on Cicero. Although he did not see himself as a Stoic, his writings contained many elements of Stoic philosophy. The two most important representatives of the Middle Stoa are Panaitios of Rhodes (180-110 BC) and Poseidonios of Apamea (135-51 BC). Panaitios is considered the founder of the middle Stoicism. He grew up in wealthy circumstances and took over the leadership of the Stoic school in Athens in 129 . He softened the ethics of the ancient Stoics somewhat and thereby made the Stoic teachings more realistic and easier to implement. Panaitios spent a lot of time in Rome, learning the Latin language and teaching some important Romans. He was the spiritual mentor of the Roman general Publius Cornelius Scipio, whom he also accompanied on several campaigns. In this way he brought Stoic ideas to the Roman Empire. Poseidonios came from a wealthy family from Apamea in Syria. When he was around 20, he went to Athens to study. There he became a student of Panaitios. After his death, he left Athens and undertook long scientific research trips to Sicily, southern France and Spain before founding his own school of philosophy on the island of Rhodes. In his lectures he taught, among others, Cicero and Pompey. He viewed humans as part of the cosmos and the world as an organism. His focus was on questions of the soul and the unity of philosophy and science. Stoicism achieved its greatest impact in the Roman Empire, with Seneca (4 BC - 65), Epictetus (50-138) and Marcus Aurelius (121-180). Gaius Musonius Rufus (30-101/102), Epictetus' teacher, is also one of the late Roman Stoics. In the Roman phase, the Stoic teaching was hardly supplemented in terms of content. Nevertheless, in the first century after the birth of Christ, it became the most powerful philosophical doctrine of all and also strongly influenced Christian doctrine. This is probably related to the social circumstances of that time: people were looking for support and support in the face of self-indulgence, inner unrest and restlessness Assistance in your everyday life. Roman Stoicism provided a true-to-life teaching with many spiritual practices. The search for ataraxia ("peace of mind") was the main focus. Most of the writings of the late Stoics are a kind of self-help literature and often refer to concrete everyday situations. The aristocrat Lucius Annaeus Seneca (3 BC - 65 AD) lived in first century AD. He was born in Spain, then moved to Rome with his father and learned there from the Stoics of his time. He was a writer and politician and for a time tutor to the later Emperor Nero. When he came to power, he led as As an imperial advisor, he largely took over government affairs. At the beginning of the 1960s he lost his political influence and withdrew into private life. Seneca wrote many treatises, including on anger, clemency, beneficence and equanimity, a large number of letters and scientific writings He had become very rich through his various state offices and the generosity of Emperor Nero. Nero ordered Seneca's suicide in 65 because he was allegedly involved in an assassination attempt on him. Seneca followed this order with stoic composure and without complaint. Epictetus (ca. 50-138) is the most quoted Stoic today. He came from Phrygia in what is now Turkey and was taken to Rome as a slave. His name means “the one who has been acquired”. Epictetus was allowed to study philosophy with the Stoic Gaius Musonius Rufus and learned about the Stoic teachings there. After the death of Emperor Nero, he was released and founded his own school of philosophy in Epirus (northeast Greece), which he directed until his death. Like his teacher Musonius Rufus, he only transmitted his teachings orally. His student Arrian recorded them. Epictetus' ascetic lifestyle and teachings were greatly admired in antiquity. He is said to have only owned a clay lamp, a straw bag, a blanket and a bench and was of the opinion that real peace was only inner peace - independent of external suffering. The “Handbook of Morals”, in which Arrian recorded Epictetus' most important teachings, has been preserved in its entirety to this day. Epictetus was particularly interested in ethics. He also considered logic to be important as an instrument of scientific thinking. The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180 AD) was a student of Epictetus. He came to the throne in 161 AD - at a time marked by wars, epidemics and economic crises. In 180 he died of the plague in a field camp in Vienna . Marcus Aurelius's best-known work is called "Self-Contemplations" and consists of diary entries. It contains reflections on a stoic way of life. For example, it is about the search for peace of mind or the question of distinguishing between things that are within our power and those that are outside of us within our control. The work is a kind of moral diary and was not originally intended for publication. Marcus Aurelius carried the book with him when he died. Stoic philosophy has had a considerable influence on numerous thinkers over the centuries. The doctrine of Stoicism influenced the church father Augustine, shaped the neo-Stoicism of the 15th and 16th centuries and even had an impact on the existentialism of the 20th century. Here are just a few examples. In late antiquity and the Middle Ages, the Stoic teachings were intensively received. From this Some important source collections also come from that time . Paul (ca. 10-60) already shows in his letters a precise knowledge of Hellenistic philosophy, especially Stoicism. And Augustine (354-430) also dealt extensively with Stoic philosophy, although he denied that God and the soul were material. In the 16th century, a real neo-Stoic movement arose, among other things, through new editions of Seneca's works . This propagated steadfastness, emotional control and inner reflection in a world torn by religious wars Virtues. Emotions in particular were heavily discussed. The question was whether one should have emotions or not. This question influenced philosophy, but also literature and art well into the 17th and 18th centuries. The Dutch polymath Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1556) published his main work, the "Handbook of the Christian Champion", in 1503. This has strong references to Epictetus' "Handbook of Morals". The book is about teaching young men martial virtue, emotional control and mastery. Erasmus of Rotterdam also published the first text-critical edition of Seneca's writings, which contributed significantly to the renewed spread of Stoicism in modern times. The French reformer John Calvin (1509-1564) wrote a detailed commentary on Seneca's work "De clementia" (On Mercy). The French philosopher, humanist and founder of essayism Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592) refers primarily to the Stoic in his teaching to endure hardship and hardship. The French philosopher and founder of early modern rationalism René Descartes (1596-1650) dealt intensively with Seneca and reacted to the neo-Stoic movement in his ethics and philosophy of emotions. Also the Dutch philosopher Baruch de Spinoza (1632-1677) was strongly influenced by Stoic ideas. This is particularly evident in his ethics, his theory of affects and his idea of a unity between God and nature. The German philosopher of the Enlightenment Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) sat down in the "Metaphysics of Morals" and the "Critique of Practical Reason" deal intensively with the Stoic doctrine of virtue. Both Kant's idea of universal reason and his concept of duty have a strong Stoic influence. In the 20th century, interest in Stoic philosophy continued to grow, initially in Germany and France, and later also in the Anglo-Saxon world. Since the middle of the 20th century, the study of Stoic philosophy has reached a peak. Stoic ideas and advice on life practices are now also being taken up in popular and advice literature. The French philosopher and existentialist Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980) describes the Stoics in his main work "Being and Nothingness" (1943) as the forerunners of existentialism. The existentialist concept of freedom has many parallels to the inner freedom of the Stoics. Also in the Cognitive behavioral therapy is referred to the Stoic doctrine. The American psychologist and psychotherapist Albert Ellis (1915-2007) is of the opinion that one's own suffering is caused by emotions that we can control ourselves. The French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-2007) 1984) speaks in detail in his book "Sexuality and Truth" about self-care or "care for yourself" and traces this concept back to Greco-Roman antiquity, especially Stoicism. The American philosopher Martha Nussbaum (*1947) developed in one of her major works "Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions." (2001) a theory of emotions that she explicitly describes as neo-Stoic. And in the present, Stoic philosophy is experiencing a real hype, especially among managers and in Silicon Valley. The so-called “Modern Stoicism” is organized primarily on social media and in online communities. He transfers Stoic ethics to today and combines them with methods from psychotherapy. In addition to Stoic websites, blogs, podcasts and YouTube channels, there is the annual “Stoic Week” as well as a variety of popular scientific advice literature. William B. Irvine's (*1952) "A Guide to the Good Life" (2008) is one of the best-known , along with Donald Robertson's "Stoicism and the Art of Happiness" (2013) and Ryan Holiday's "The Daily Stoic" (2016). these practical life guides. Have you already become acquainted with Stoic philosophy in any form? Feel free to write your experiences in the comments below. The next part of this series is about the eggshell of Stoic philosophy: Stoic logic. You can now test your knowledge with the Quizlet study set “Stoa: Historical Overview”. Have fun learning and see you soon!