Australia federated in 1901, becoming a single Commonwealth but remained deeply connected to the British Empire.
Strong political, cultural, and emotional ties bound Australia to Great Britain, referred to as the 'Mother Country'.
Over 90% of migrants before 1914 were British, reinforcing these ties.
Australia developed its own social policies (e.g., women's suffrage in 1902) and experienced Labor governments.
Foreign policy and defence were largely dictated by its Imperial relationship.
Geographically isolated in the Asia-Pacific, Australia had concerns about defence, especially its long coastline and the rising power of Japan.
Primary allegiance remained with Britain.
When Britain declared war on Germany in August 1914, Australia's involvement was considered automatic.
This was met with widespread, bipartisan political support and initial public enthusiasm.
Prime Minister Joseph Cook: "Remember that when the Empire is at war, so is Australia at war".
The distinction between British and Australian interests was blurred.
Participation felt like a familial obligation, explaining the lack of debate about joining the war, unlike later divisions over conscription.
Imperial commitments took precedence over domestic priorities.
The first shot fired by any British Empire force in the war occurred from Fort Nepean in Victoria, aimed at a German merchant ship.
World War I: The Great War (1914-1918)
Causes of WWI can be understood through the acronym MAIN:
Militarism: Aggressive build-up of armed forces to achieve national goals, e.g., the naval arms race between Britain and Germany.
Alliances: Interlocking treaties divided Europe into the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) and the Triple Alliance/Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).
Imperialism: Competition among European powers for colonies, resources, and influence, causing friction, especially with Germany challenging Britain and France.
Nationalism: Intense patriotism and belief in national superiority fuelled rivalries and territorial disputes, particularly in the Balkans.
Immediate trigger: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914.
Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, activating alliances.
Russia mobilised to support Serbia, leading Germany to declare war on Russia and France.
Germany's invasion of neutral Belgium to attack France prompted Britain to declare war on Germany on 4 August 1914.
World War I Starts
Serbian government mobilized its army and appealed to Russia for assistance, convinced Austria-Hungary was preparing for war.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, initiating the collapse of peace among European powers.
Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain, and Serbia aligned against Austria-Hungary and Germany.
The Western Front
Germany began fighting on two fronts: invading France through neutral Belgium (west) and confronting Russia (east), according to the Schlieffen Plan.
German troops invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914.
The Germans assaulted Liege, using siege cannons to capture the city by August 15.
German troops advanced through Belgium toward France, committing atrocities against civilians.
First Battle of the Marne
Fought September 6-9, 1914: French and British forces confronted the German army near Paris.
Allied troops checked the German advance and counterattacked, driving the Germans back to the Aisne River.
The defeat ended German plans for a quick victory in France.
Both sides dug into trenches, leading to a war of attrition lasting over three years.
Australia's Automatic Involvement
As a dominion of the British Empire, Australia was automatically at war when Britain declared war.
Government (Joseph Cook) and opposition (Andrew Fisher) pledged full support.
Fisher: Australians would stand beside Britain "to our last man and our last shilling".
The war was greeted with enthusiasm across Australia.
Initial Rush
Recruiting offices opened across Australia on 10 August 1914.
Thousands volunteered for the Australian Imperial Force (AIF).
The AIF was raised for overseas service because the Defence Act 1903 prevented militia deployment outside Australian territory.
By the end of 1914, over 50,000 men enlisted, expecting a short and glorious conflict.
Motivations
Loyalty and Patriotism: Duty to support Great Britain and the Empire against German aggression.
Adventure and Travel: Escape from ordinary life; romantic notions of war.
Economic Factors: Regular pay (minimum six shillings a day) was a significant incentive.
Social Pressure and Propaganda: Posters, songs, speeches, and pamphlets appealed to duty, pride, courage, and mateship.
Prior Military Experience: Some had experience in cadet units, rifle clubs, or earlier British campaigns.
Changing Motivations
Enthusiasm waned as the war dragged on and casualty lists grew, especially after Gallipoli (1915) and the Western Front (Fromelles and Pozières, 1916).
Adventure was replaced by duty.
Enlistment Standards
Initially strict physical standards: age (19-38), height, chest measurement ranges, and fitness.
Almost a third of volunteers were rejected in the first year.
Standards were relaxed as the war progressed and casualties increased.
This undermined the image of the AIF as composed of the nation's physical elite, promoted by Charles Bean.
Where Australians Served in WWI
Australian forces served across various theatres, reflecting the global nature of the conflict.
Sequence of Major Deployments
German New Guinea (September-October 1914)
The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (ANMEF) captured German territories in New Guinea and surrounding islands, including Rabaul, demonstrating Australia's commitment.
HMAS Sydney sank the German raider SMS Emden near the Cocos Islands in November 1914.
Egypt (Late 1914 - Early 1915)
The main body of the AIF was diverted to Egypt for training due to overcrowding in the UK and the threat to the Suez Canal.
Training camps were established near Cairo, where the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed.
Gallipoli Campaign (April - December 1915)
The AIF, as part of ANZAC, landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, marking Australia's entry into large-scale combat.
The campaign involved intense fighting, notable battles like Lone Pine and the Nek, a prolonged stalemate, and a successful evacuation in December 1915.
Lemnos served as a crucial forward base, anchorage, and hospital site.
Western Front (France and Belgium, 1916-1918)
AIF divisions transferred to the Western Front after Gallipoli.
Major battles: Fromelles (1916), the Somme (Pozières, Mouquet Farm, 1916), Bullecourt (1917), Messines (1917), Third Battle of Ypres/Passchendaele (1917), Villers-Bretonneux (1918), Hamel (1918), Battle of Amiens (August 1918), capture of Mont St Quentin (1918), breaking of the Hindenburg Line (1918).
Most Australian casualties occurred on the Western Front.
Middle East (Sinai and Palestine, 1916-1918)
Australian Light Horse brigades remained in the Middle East.
Key role defending the Suez Canal, clearing the Sinai Peninsula (Battle of Romani), and advancing through Palestine and Syria.
Notable actions: battles for Gaza, charge of the 4th Light Horse Brigade at Beersheba (October 1917), capture of Jerusalem, and Damascus.
Involved more mobile warfare compared to the Western Front.
Other Theatres
Limited involvement in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Salonika (Greece), and global operations by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN).
Australian Flying Corps (AFC) served in the Middle East and Europe.
Trial by Fire: The Gallipoli Campaign
The Gallipoli campaign was conceived to break the stalemate on the Western Front.
Strategic objectives: force passage through the Dardanelles Strait; capture Constantinople; knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war; open a sea route to supply Russia.
Initial attempts by British and French naval forces failed in February and March 1915.
Allied forces landed at multiple points; ANZAC landed north of Gaba Tepe, at Anzac Cove.
Troops faced steep, rugged cliffs and fierce resistance.
British and French forces landed at Cape Helles.
The campaign devolved into trench warfare in difficult terrain.
Nature of Warfare and Conditions
Terrain: Steep, scrub-covered slopes and deep ravines.
Climate: Scorching heat and dust in summer; bitter cold, rain, and snow in winter.
Health: Poor sanitation, limited fresh water, decomposing bodies, and flies led to disease. Dysentery and typhoid fever caused many casualties.
Combat: Constant danger from snipers and artillery. Major attacks resulted in heavy casualties for little gain. Fighting was often at close quarters in trenches.
Stalemate and Evacuation
Neither side could achieve a decisive breakthrough.
The evacuation of Anzac Cove and Suvla Bay (19-20 December 1915) was meticulously planned and executed; Helles evacuated in January 1916.
The withdrawal was achieved with minimal casualties.
Outcome and Cost
The campaign was a military defeat for the Allied forces.
Australia suffered 26,111 casualties, including 8,141 deaths.
Strategically, the campaign failed to achieve its objectives.
Gallipoli holds immense significance in Australian history as the "birthplace" of the Anzac legend, celebrating courage, endurance, initiative, sacrifice, and mateship.
The Western Front: Industrialised Warfare
After Gallipoli, the AIF reorganized in Egypt and transferred to the Western Front in France and Belgium, beginning March 1916.
Initially placed in a 'nursery' sector near Armentières to acclimatise.
Nature of Trench Warfare
The Western Front was defined by a network of trenches stretching 760 kilometres (475 miles) from the North Sea to the Swiss border.
Trenches consisted of front-line, support, and reserve trenches connected by communication trenches.
Trenches were built in zig-zag patterns to limit the effect of shell bursts.
Conditions
Trenches were frequently filled with mud and water.
Infested with rats and lice, which spread diseases like trench fever.
Constant damp and cold led to trench foot.
Food was often monotonous and poor quality.
Dangers
Constant threat of death or injury from artillery shells, sniper fire, and machine guns.
Raids and patrols into No Man's Land were perilous.
Psychological toll was immense, leading to 'shell shock' (PTSD).
Tactics
Defensive firepower (machine guns and artillery) led to a prolonged stalemate.
Early tactics involved massive artillery bombardments followed by massed infantry assaults ('going over the top').
New technologies and tactics were developed to break the deadlock.
Artillery
Development of the 'creeping barrage', where artillery fire moved forward ahead of infantry.
Improved accuracy through sound ranging and flash spotting.
Poison Gas
Introduced by the Germans in 1915.
Types included chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas.
Effectiveness limited by the development of gas masks.
Tanks
First introduced by the British in 1916.
Early tanks were slow, unreliable, and vulnerable, but their potential was recognised.
Improved tank design and tactics later in the war.
Aircraft
Initially used for reconnaissance and artillery spotting.
Aircraft increasingly took on combat roles and ground attack.
Animals in the Great War: More Than Just Mascots
Millions of animals served alongside soldiers in various capacities.
Horses, mules, and donkeys were the backbone of military logistics, hauling artillery, supplies, and injured soldiers.
The Australian Light Horse relied heavily on the Waler horse.
Camels played a vital role in the Sinai and Palestine campaigns.
Donkeys were useful in rugged terrain like Gallipoli.
Communication and Detection
Homing pigeons carried vital messages.
Dogs served as messengers, guards, and trackers.
Canaries detected poisonous gas in the trenches.
Trench Companions and Pest Control
Animals provided companionship and a morale boost.
Cats and terriers controlled the rat populations.
The ANZAC Experience
ANZAC forces utilized many of these animals.
The Australian Light Horse and their Walers are iconic.
Animals were essential during the conflict.
Somme Offensive - 1916
The major British and French offensive aimed to achieve a breakthrough and relieve pressure on the French at Verdun.
Fromelles (19 July 1916)
The AIF's first major battle on the Western Front involved the 5th Australian Division.
Intended as a feint to draw German reserves away from the main Somme battle.
The attack was poorly planned and executed against strong German defences.
The Australians suffered devastating losses (5,533 casualties) in just over 24 hours.
Pozières and Mouquet Farm (July-September 1916)
The 1st, 2nd, and 4th Australian Divisions were committed to the main Somme battle.
The Australians launched repeated attacks under relentless shellfire and counter-attacks.
The fighting reduced the landscape to a cratered wasteland and inflicted around 23,000 casualties in 42 days.
Battle of Hamel (4 July 1918)
A limited-objective attack designed to capture the village of Hamel.
The first major operation planned and commanded by Lieutenant General Sir John Monash.
The assault involved Australian and American soldiers fighting together.
Monash's Tactics
Combined Arms: A synchronized assault integrating infantry, artillery, tanks, and aircraft.
Artillery: A sophisticated creeping barrage incorporating high explosive, shrapnel, and smoke shells.
Tanks: Use of Mark V tanks to support the infantry.
Aircraft: Extensive air support provided by the RAF and AFC No. 3 Squadron.
Secrecy and Surprise: Strict measures were taken to conceal preparations.
Outcome
The Battle of Hamel was a resounding success.
All objectives were captured within 93 minutes.
Casualties were relatively light.
The battle demonstrated the effectiveness of Monash's planning and coordinated use of all available arms.
It served as a blueprint for larger, decisive Allied offensives that followed.
Experiences of Australians in WWI
Beyond the front lines, Australians experienced the war in diverse ways.
Prisoners of War (PoW)
Approximately 4,044 members of the AIF became prisoners of war during WWI.
The vast majority were captured by the Germans on the Western Front.
Treatment was generally guided by international agreements like the Hague Conventions.
Wounded prisoners received medical care in German field hospitals.
Officers were exempt from manual labour and transferred to officer camps (Oflags).
Other ranks were subjected to forced labour.
Conditions in the camps (Stalags) were often harsh, with basic accommodation, inadequate food, and poor clothing.
The death rate among Australian POWs was around 9%.
The Australian Red Cross Society provided support to POWs.
Role of Women
Women's participation in WWI was significant, though largely confined by prevailing gender roles.
Nearly 3,000 Australian women served overseas as nurses with the Australian Army Nursing Service (AANS).
26 AANS nurses died on active service
Australian female doctors served with British military hospitals or voluntary organizations.
Most women contributed on the home front, undertaking crucial voluntary work.
Women knitted socks, raised money, and provided support for soldiers' families.
WWI did not lead to the large-scale entry of women into traditionally male industries seen in WWII.
Participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
Despite systemic discrimination, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people served in WWI.
The Defence Act 1903 officially barred the enlistment of persons not of European origin.
Over 1,000 Indigenous men enlisted and served in the AIF.
Some recruiters ignored the regulations The rules were relaxed in 1917 to allow half-castes to enlist.
Motivations included patriotism, pay, a desire for adventure, or joining up with friends.
Indigenous soldiers were generally treated as equals within their units.
Upon returning to Australia, Indigenous veterans faced the same discrimination as before the war.
The Australian Home Front during WWI
The war profoundly impacted life within Australia.
Government Controls (War Precautions Act 1914)
This legislation granted the federal government unprecedented powers.
Key powers
Censorship
Control of Information
Prosecution of Dissent
Restrictions on 'Aliens'
Conscription Debates (1916 & 1917)
Prime Minister Billy Hughes believed that conscription was necessary.
National referendums were held in October 1916 and December 1917.
Arguments for
A Matter of Duty
Essential for victory
Necessary to provide reinforcements
Ensured Equality of Sacrifice
Arguments Against
Opposition to forcing men to fight in a distant war
The belief that Australia had already contributed enough
Economic Hardship at Home
Perceived Inequality
Outcome
Both referendums were defeated.
The debates were bitter and divisive.
Propaganda
Propaganda was pervasive, encouraging enlistment, fundraising, and demonizing the enemy.
Enemy Aliens
People born in or with ancestry from Germany were classified as 'enemy aliens'.
They faced restrictions and were often interned in camps.
Economic Impact
The war significantly disrupted the Australian economy.
Social Impact
Grief and loss became a pervasive experience.
The conscription debates created deep and lasting divisions.
Women played a vital role in holding society together.
Australia and the End of World War I: A Nation Transformed
The end of World War I on November 11, 1918, was met with relief but also sorrow.
Australian forces played a significant role in the final Allied offensives.
Over 416,000 enlisted; approximately 60,000 were killed and 156,000 wounded or taken prisoner.
Politically, Australia sought war reparations and control over former German New Guinea.
Australia became a founding member of the League of Nations.
The ANZAC Legend & Commemoration
The Anzac legend rapidly developed.
War correspondents like Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and C.E.W. Bean heavily shaped the legend
It emphasized courage, endurance, initiative, mateship, egalitarianism, and stoicism.
They influence in the Official History of the war
Bean played a key role in cementing the legend
Early commemoration of the Gallipoli landing began almost immediately, with the first Anzac Day on April 25, 1916.
Anzac Day became Australia's primary national commemoration.
War memorials were erected across the country.
The Australian War Memorial (AWM) in Canberra was built.
The Anzac legend faces critique for its focus on Gallipoli and exclusion of non-Anglo-Australians groups.