Transcript for:
History

### Australia at the Dawn of the 20th Century - Australia federated in 1901, becoming a single Commonwealth but remained deeply connected to the British Empire. - Strong political, cultural, and emotional ties bound Australia to Great Britain, referred to as the 'Mother Country'. - Over 90% of migrants before 1914 were British, reinforcing these ties. - Australia developed its own social policies (e.g., women's suffrage in 1902) and experienced Labor governments. - Foreign policy and defence were largely dictated by its Imperial relationship. - Geographically isolated in the Asia-Pacific, Australia had concerns about defence, especially its long coastline and the rising power of Japan. - Primary allegiance remained with Britain. - When Britain declared war on Germany in August 1914, Australia's involvement was considered automatic. - This was met with widespread, bipartisan political support and initial public enthusiasm. - Prime Minister Joseph Cook: "Remember that when the Empire is at war, so is Australia at war". - The distinction between British and Australian interests was blurred. - Participation felt like a familial obligation, explaining the lack of debate about joining the war, unlike later divisions over conscription. - Imperial commitments took precedence over domestic priorities. - The first shot fired by any British Empire force in the war occurred from Fort Nepean in Victoria, aimed at a German merchant ship. ### World War I: The Great War (1914-1918) - Causes of WWI can be understood through the acronym MAIN: - Militarism: Aggressive build-up of armed forces to achieve national goals, e.g., the naval arms race between Britain and Germany. - Alliances: Interlocking treaties divided Europe into the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia) and the Triple Alliance/Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). - Imperialism: Competition among European powers for colonies, resources, and influence, causing friction, especially with Germany challenging Britain and France. - Nationalism: Intense patriotism and belief in national superiority fuelled rivalries and territorial disputes, particularly in the Balkans. - Immediate trigger: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. - Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia. - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, activating alliances. - Russia mobilised to support Serbia, leading Germany to declare war on Russia and France. - Germany's invasion of neutral Belgium to attack France prompted Britain to declare war on Germany on 4 August 1914. ### World War I Starts - Serbian government mobilized its army and appealed to Russia for assistance, convinced Austria-Hungary was preparing for war. - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, initiating the collapse of peace among European powers. - Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain, and Serbia aligned against Austria-Hungary and Germany. ### The Western Front - Germany began fighting on two fronts: invading France through neutral Belgium (west) and confronting Russia (east), according to the Schlieffen Plan. - German troops invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914. - The Germans assaulted Liege, using siege cannons to capture the city by August 15. - German troops advanced through Belgium toward France, committing atrocities against civilians. ### First Battle of the Marne - Fought September 6-9, 1914: French and British forces confronted the German army near Paris. - Allied troops checked the German advance and counterattacked, driving the Germans back to the Aisne River. - The defeat ended German plans for a quick victory in France. - Both sides dug into trenches, leading to a war of attrition lasting over three years. ### Australia's Automatic Involvement - As a dominion of the British Empire, Australia was automatically at war when Britain declared war. - Government (Joseph Cook) and opposition (Andrew Fisher) pledged full support. - Fisher: Australians would stand beside Britain "to our last man and our last shilling". - The war was greeted with enthusiasm across Australia. ### Initial Rush - Recruiting offices opened across Australia on 10 August 1914. - Thousands volunteered for the Australian Imperial Force (AIF). - The AIF was raised for overseas service because the Defence Act 1903 prevented militia deployment outside Australian territory. - By the end of 1914, over 50,000 men enlisted, expecting a short and glorious conflict. ### Motivations - Loyalty and Patriotism: Duty to support Great Britain and the Empire against German aggression. - Adventure and Travel: Escape from ordinary life; romantic notions of war. - Economic Factors: Regular pay (minimum six shillings a day) was a significant incentive. - Social Pressure and Propaganda: Posters, songs, speeches, and pamphlets appealed to duty, pride, courage, and mateship. - Prior Military Experience: Some had experience in cadet units, rifle clubs, or earlier British campaigns. ### Changing Motivations - Enthusiasm waned as the war dragged on and casualty lists grew, especially after Gallipoli (1915) and the Western Front (Fromelles and Pozières, 1916). - Adventure was replaced by duty. ### Enlistment Standards - Initially strict physical standards: age (19-38), height, chest measurement ranges, and fitness. - Almost a third of volunteers were rejected in the first year. - Standards were relaxed as the war progressed and casualties increased. - This undermined the image of the AIF as composed of the nation's physical elite, promoted by Charles Bean. ### Where Australians Served in WWI - Australian forces served across various theatres, reflecting the global nature of the conflict. ### Sequence of Major Deployments ### German New Guinea (September-October 1914) - The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (ANMEF) captured German territories in New Guinea and surrounding islands, including Rabaul, demonstrating Australia's commitment. - HMAS Sydney sank the German raider SMS Emden near the Cocos Islands in November 1914. ### Egypt (Late 1914 - Early 1915) - The main body of the AIF was diverted to Egypt for training due to overcrowding in the UK and the threat to the Suez Canal. - Training camps were established near Cairo, where the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) was formed. ### Gallipoli Campaign (April - December 1915) - The AIF, as part of ANZAC, landed at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915, marking Australia's entry into large-scale combat. - The campaign involved intense fighting, notable battles like Lone Pine and the Nek, a prolonged stalemate, and a successful evacuation in December 1915. - Lemnos served as a crucial forward base, anchorage, and hospital site. ### Western Front (France and Belgium, 1916-1918) - AIF divisions transferred to the Western Front after Gallipoli. - Major battles: Fromelles (1916), the Somme (Pozières, Mouquet Farm, 1916), Bullecourt (1917), Messines (1917), Third Battle of Ypres/Passchendaele (1917), Villers-Bretonneux (1918), Hamel (1918), Battle of Amiens (August 1918), capture of Mont St Quentin (1918), breaking of the Hindenburg Line (1918). - Most Australian casualties occurred on the Western Front. ### Middle East (Sinai and Palestine, 1916-1918) - Australian Light Horse brigades remained in the Middle East. - Key role defending the Suez Canal, clearing the Sinai Peninsula (Battle of Romani), and advancing through Palestine and Syria. - Notable actions: battles for Gaza, charge of the 4th Light Horse Brigade at Beersheba (October 1917), capture of Jerusalem, and Damascus. - Involved more mobile warfare compared to the Western Front. ### Other Theatres - Limited involvement in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Salonika (Greece), and global operations by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN). - Australian Flying Corps (AFC) served in the Middle East and Europe. ### Trial by Fire: The Gallipoli Campaign - The Gallipoli campaign was conceived to break the stalemate on the Western Front. - Strategic objectives: force passage through the Dardanelles Strait; capture Constantinople; knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war; open a sea route to supply Russia. - Initial attempts by British and French naval forces failed in February and March 1915. - Allied forces landed at multiple points; ANZAC landed north of Gaba Tepe, at Anzac Cove. - Troops faced steep, rugged cliffs and fierce resistance. - British and French forces landed at Cape Helles. - The campaign devolved into trench warfare in difficult terrain. ### Nature of Warfare and Conditions - **Terrain:** Steep, scrub-covered slopes and deep ravines. - **Climate:** Scorching heat and dust in summer; bitter cold, rain, and snow in winter. - **Health:** Poor sanitation, limited fresh water, decomposing bodies, and flies led to disease. Dysentery and typhoid fever caused many casualties. - **Combat:** Constant danger from snipers and artillery. Major attacks resulted in heavy casualties for little gain. Fighting was often at close quarters in trenches. ### Stalemate and Evacuation - Neither side could achieve a decisive breakthrough. - The evacuation of Anzac Cove and Suvla Bay (19-20 December 1915) was meticulously planned and executed; Helles evacuated in January 1916. - The withdrawal was achieved with minimal casualties. ### Outcome and Cost - The campaign was a military defeat for the Allied forces. - Australia suffered 26,111 casualties, including 8,141 deaths. - Strategically, the campaign failed to achieve its objectives. - Gallipoli holds immense significance in Australian history as the "birthplace" of the Anzac legend, celebrating courage, endurance, initiative, sacrifice, and mateship. ### The Western Front: Industrialised Warfare - After Gallipoli, the AIF reorganized in Egypt and transferred to the Western Front in France and Belgium, beginning March 1916. - Initially placed in a 'nursery' sector near Armentières to acclimatise. ### Nature of Trench Warfare - The Western Front was defined by a network of trenches stretching 760 kilometres (475 miles) from the North Sea to the Swiss border. - Trenches consisted of front-line, support, and reserve trenches connected by communication trenches. - Trenches were built in zig-zag patterns to limit the effect of shell bursts. ### Conditions - Trenches were frequently filled with mud and water. - Infested with rats and lice, which spread diseases like trench fever. - Constant damp and cold led to trench foot. - Food was often monotonous and poor quality. ### Dangers - Constant threat of death or injury from artillery shells, sniper fire, and machine guns. - Raids and patrols into No Man's Land were perilous. - Psychological toll was immense, leading to 'shell shock' (PTSD). ### Tactics - Defensive firepower (machine guns and artillery) led to a prolonged stalemate. - Early tactics involved massive artillery bombardments followed by massed infantry assaults ('going over the top'). - New technologies and tactics were developed to break the deadlock. ### Artillery - Development of the 'creeping barrage', where artillery fire moved forward ahead of infantry. - Improved accuracy through sound ranging and flash spotting. ### Poison Gas - Introduced by the Germans in 1915. - Types included chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas. - Effectiveness limited by the development of gas masks. ### Tanks - First introduced by the British in 1916. - Early tanks were slow, unreliable, and vulnerable, but their potential was recognised. - Improved tank design and tactics later in the war. ### Aircraft - Initially used for reconnaissance and artillery spotting. - Aircraft increasingly took on combat roles and ground attack. ### Animals in the Great War: More Than Just Mascots - Millions of animals served alongside soldiers in various capacities. - Horses, mules, and donkeys were the backbone of military logistics, hauling artillery, supplies, and injured soldiers. - The Australian Light Horse relied heavily on the Waler horse. - Camels played a vital role in the Sinai and Palestine campaigns. - Donkeys were useful in rugged terrain like Gallipoli. ### Communication and Detection - Homing pigeons carried vital messages. - Dogs served as messengers, guards, and trackers. - Canaries detected poisonous gas in the trenches. ### Trench Companions and Pest Control - Animals provided companionship and a morale boost. - Cats and terriers controlled the rat populations. ### The ANZAC Experience - ANZAC forces utilized many of these animals. - The Australian Light Horse and their Walers are iconic. - Animals were essential during the conflict. ### Somme Offensive - 1916 - The major British and French offensive aimed to achieve a breakthrough and relieve pressure on the French at Verdun. ### Fromelles (19 July 1916) - The AIF's first major battle on the Western Front involved the 5th Australian Division. - Intended as a feint to draw German reserves away from the main Somme battle. - The attack was poorly planned and executed against strong German defences. - The Australians suffered devastating losses (5,533 casualties) in just over 24 hours. ### Pozières and Mouquet Farm (July-September 1916) - The 1st, 2nd, and 4th Australian Divisions were committed to the main Somme battle. - The Australians launched repeated attacks under relentless shellfire and counter-attacks. - The fighting reduced the landscape to a cratered wasteland and inflicted around 23,000 casualties in 42 days. ### Battle of Hamel (4 July 1918) - A limited-objective attack designed to capture the village of Hamel. - The first major operation planned and commanded by Lieutenant General Sir John Monash. - The assault involved Australian and American soldiers fighting together. ### Monash's Tactics - Combined Arms: A synchronized assault integrating infantry, artillery, tanks, and aircraft. - Artillery: A sophisticated creeping barrage incorporating high explosive, shrapnel, and smoke shells. - Tanks: Use of Mark V tanks to support the infantry. - Aircraft: Extensive air support provided by the RAF and AFC No. 3 Squadron. - Secrecy and Surprise: Strict measures were taken to conceal preparations. ### Outcome - The Battle of Hamel was a resounding success. - All objectives were captured within 93 minutes. - Casualties were relatively light. - The battle demonstrated the effectiveness of Monash's planning and coordinated use of all available arms. - It served as a blueprint for larger, decisive Allied offensives that followed. ### Experiences of Australians in WWI - Beyond the front lines, Australians experienced the war in diverse ways. ### Prisoners of War (PoW) - Approximately 4,044 members of the AIF became prisoners of war during WWI. - The vast majority were captured by the Germans on the Western Front. - Treatment was generally guided by international agreements like the Hague Conventions. - Wounded prisoners received medical care in German field hospitals. - Officers were exempt from manual labour and transferred to officer camps (Oflags). - Other ranks were subjected to forced labour. - Conditions in the camps (Stalags) were often harsh, with basic accommodation, inadequate food, and poor clothing. - The death rate among Australian POWs was around 9%. - The Australian Red Cross Society provided support to POWs. ### Role of Women - Women's participation in WWI was significant, though largely confined by prevailing gender roles. - Nearly 3,000 Australian women served overseas as nurses with the Australian Army Nursing Service (AANS). - 26 AANS nurses died on active service - Australian female doctors served with British military hospitals or voluntary organizations. - Most women contributed on the home front, undertaking crucial voluntary work. - Women knitted socks, raised money, and provided support for soldiers' families. - WWI did not lead to the large-scale entry of women into traditionally male industries seen in WWII. ### Participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples - Despite systemic discrimination, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people served in WWI. - The Defence Act 1903 officially barred the enlistment of persons not of European origin. - Over 1,000 Indigenous men enlisted and served in the AIF. - Some recruiters ignored the regulations The rules were relaxed in 1917 to allow half-castes to enlist. - Motivations included patriotism, pay, a desire for adventure, or joining up with friends. - Indigenous soldiers were generally treated as equals within their units. - Upon returning to Australia, Indigenous veterans faced the same discrimination as before the war. ### The Australian Home Front during WWI - The war profoundly impacted life within Australia. ### Government Controls (War Precautions Act 1914) - This legislation granted the federal government unprecedented powers. Key powers 1. Censorship 2. Control of Information 3. Prosecution of Dissent 4. Restrictions on 'Aliens' ### Conscription Debates (1916 & 1917) - Prime Minister Billy Hughes believed that conscription was necessary. - National referendums were held in October 1916 and December 1917. Arguments for 1. A Matter of Duty 2. Essential for victory 3. Necessary to provide reinforcements 4. Ensured Equality of Sacrifice Arguments Against 1. Opposition to forcing men to fight in a distant war 2. The belief that Australia had already contributed enough 3. Economic Hardship at Home 4. Perceived Inequality ### Outcome - Both referendums were defeated. - The debates were bitter and divisive. ### Propaganda - Propaganda was pervasive, encouraging enlistment, fundraising, and demonizing the enemy. ### Enemy Aliens - People born in or with ancestry from Germany were classified as 'enemy aliens'. - They faced restrictions and were often interned in camps. ### Economic Impact - The war significantly disrupted the Australian economy. ### Social Impact - Grief and loss became a pervasive experience. - The conscription debates created deep and lasting divisions. - Women played a vital role in holding society together. ### Australia and the End of World War I: A Nation Transformed - The end of World War I on November 11, 1918, was met with relief but also sorrow. - Australian forces played a significant role in the final Allied offensives. - Over 416,000 enlisted; approximately 60,000 were killed and 156,000 wounded or taken prisoner. - Politically, Australia sought war reparations and control over former German New Guinea. - Australia became a founding member of the League of Nations. ### The ANZAC Legend & Commemoration - The Anzac legend rapidly developed. - War correspondents like Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett and C.E.W. Bean heavily shaped the legend - It emphasized courage, endurance, initiative, mateship, egalitarianism, and stoicism. - They influence in the Official History of the war - Bean played a key role in cementing the legend - Early commemoration of the Gallipoli landing began almost immediately, with the first Anzac Day on April 25, 1916. - Anzac Day became Australia's primary national commemoration. - War memorials were erected across the country. - The Australian War Memorial (AWM) in Canberra was built. - The Anzac legend faces critique for its focus on Gallipoli and exclusion of non-Anglo-Australians groups.